Progress Of Indic Languages Vs English - 2

[Bodhi]

<b>History of bharatiya languages as recorded by Bharata in Natyas'astra</b>

This note documents the information related to languages of Bharatam recorded by Bharata in Natyas'astra with particular reference to the use of specific languages by specific characters in dramatic performances and in consonantc with emotions and sentiments related to specific dramatic situations. This is a remarkable historical document of the situation of Prakrits and Samskr.tam circa centuries before the Common Era.

The detailed note is mirrored at http://spaces.msn.com/members/sarasvati97 Entry: history of bharatiya languages as recorded by Bharata in Natyas'astra

Hopefully, this should lead to further detailed researches in language change over time and in reference to other resources such those in Yaska's, Patanjali's, Panini's, Tolkappiyan's works and other ancient texts. The working hypothesis is: the received wisdom about the categorisation of 'indo-aryan' languages as a category needs to be radically revised; it is an artificial, arbitrary, eurocentric construct totally unrelated to the evidence adduced by Bharata in his Natyas'astra. It is unfortunate that during the colonial regimes, we had savants like SK Chatterji, Bhandarkar, Tilak who followed the doctrine which governed their times: the doctrine of 'aryan invasion'. Now that this doctrine is seen to be a myth and hollow, new methods based on bharatiya research method of s'ruti, tantrayukti and anubhuti should be evolved to define a new school -- Bharata school of language change.

Some gleanings are available for over 1000 lexemes which match with Sarasvati hieroglyphs related to the inventory of mints, smithy of vis'vakarma guilds on Sarasvati river basin and in Sarasvati civilization sites of circa 3300 to 1900 BCE. These are briefly presented at http://spaces.msn.com/members/sarasvati97 to complement the 7-volume encyclopaedic work on Sarasvati already published including two volumes, Volumes 6 and 7 on language and epigraphs.

Chapter 17 is titled laks.an.a_lanka_ra_divivekah’ (classification of characteristics and embellishments)

The characteristics related to the use of Samskr.tam by actors are listed as follows:

1. bhu_s.an.a (embellishment)
2. aks.ara samgha_ta (compactness of letters)
3. s’obha_ (brilliance)
4. abhima_na (assertion by reasoning)
5. gun.aki_rtana (encouragement by similitude)
6. uda_haran.a (example)
7. nirukta (etymology)
8. gun.a_nuva_da (transition of qualities)
9. atis’aya (excellence)
10. hetu (causation)
11. sa_ru_pya (similitude)
12. mi_thya_dhyavasa_ya (wrong apprehension)
13. siddhi (accomplishment)
14. padoccaya (verbosity)
15. a_kranda (forceful assertion)
16. manortha (self-expression)
17. a_khya_na (narration)
18. ya_cjn~a_ (persuasion)
19. pratis.edha (prevention)
20. pr.ccha_ (inquiry)
21. dr.s.t.a_nta (illustration)
22. nirbha_sana (prolixity)
23. sams’aya (doubt)
24. a_s’is (blessing)
25. priyokti (friendly speech)
26. kapat.a (deception)
27. ks.ama_ (patience)
28. upapatti (cessation)
29. yukti (argument)
30. ka_rya (assumption)
31. anuni_ti (flattery)
32. paridevanam (censure)

With this brilliant array of oral eloquence which are equal to the figures of speech employed in poetical composition, the author tries to link them to the emotional aspects sought to be presented to the audience through drama.

The term Nirukta as elaborated by Bharata is as follows:

Nirukta is an explanation which is of two types as true and false. The true are where the meaning of the constituent parts of the noun is proved right and in false it remains unproved. (17.13)

The use of gun.as is explained, again in the context of expressing particular emotion or sentiment. ‘The use of prolated letter (when three ma_tra_s occur in conjunction with consonants) shall be used in the case of recollecting something, in the expression of indignation, in lamentation and in the chanting of the Vedas by the Brahmins. The long a_ is suitable for recollection and the long u_ for expressing indignation while in lamentation ha_ is to be employed. In the recitation of the Vedas the letter om is suitable.’ (17.114-115).

Bharata also notes that ‘the use of harsh words like cekri_d.ita are not suitable in the delicate and graceful usages of dramaturgy. They would appear like harlots in the company of Brahmins…’ (17.117).

<span style='color:red'>Nature of relationship between Prakrits and Sanskrit </span>

The next chapter, Chapter 18 is titled ‘Bha_s.a_vidha_nam’ (Use of languages) and begins as follows:

“O best among Brahmins! I have thus explained the modes regarding the Sanskrit passages (assigned to the actors). Now I shall deal with the characteristics of the passages in Prakrit. This (Sanskrit) itself devoid of refinement and subjected to change may be understood as Prakrit passages which are representative of the different situations necessitated by conditions. In dramatic situations they may be understood as belonging to three types such as (i) sama_nas’abda (use of the same Sanskrit words); (ii) vibhras.t.a (corrupted forms); and, (iii) des’i_gata (of native origin).” (18.1-3)

This is a remarkable evidence of the relationship between Sanskrit and Prakrit as perceived by Bharata. Clearly, Sanskrit is delineated as refined Prakrit. In some cases Sanskrit retains the Prakrit words as they are; in some cases, the forms are ‘refined’, obviously with reference to root semantics; and in other cases, the Prakrit words are distinguished and retained as des’I or as of native origin without any ‘refinement’ attempted.

This runs in the face of the IE linguistics which tries to look upon Prakrits of Bharatam as derivatives from Sanskrit as Indo-Aryan category. The ‘Indo-Aryan’ is a mythical category constructed by linguistics and totally unrelated to the reality of the evidence presented by Bharata.

NP Unni adds a footnote to this verse: ‘Abhinavagafupta defines pa_t.hya as ‘pa_t.havis’es.am arhati yatnena va_ pat.hani_yam vis’is.t.ena ru_pena va_ pat.hana_rham, a_ntaracittavr.ttivas’a_deva va_ tatha_ pat.hitum s’akyam, a_ca_rya yatnena va_ pat.hani_yamit pa_t.hyam.’ The word is defined or derived as that which serves recitation, or which necessitates particular effort in recitation, or worthy of special attention in recitation or capable of recitation due to the internal or mental attitude, or worthy of being recited with the help or direction of a preceptor. He derives Prakrita as ‘sams.kr.tameva samska_ragun.ena yatnena pariraks.an.aru_pen.a varjitam, prakr.terasams’ka_raru_pa_ya a_gatam’ – meaning that it is Sanskrit itself devoid of purification in the form of protection or derived from nature without any kind of refinement.’

This explanatory note provide Abhinavagupta’s differentiation of Prakrit and Sanskrit as containing words without refinement and with refinement respectively. The mystic reference to ‘purification in the form of protection’ is intriguing and may relate to the absorption of Vedic forms of words intact which are deemed mantra though it may be difficult to explain the Vedic forms in terms of Sanskrit roots.

Bharata provides examples of sama_nas’abda (having the same form in Prakrit and Sanskrit): kamala, amala, ren.u, taranga, lola, salila. (18.4)

Vibhras.t.a (corrupted forms) are explained: such words in which the combined vowels or consonants change or cease to exist are called vibhras.t.a (corrupted). In Prakrit there do not exist ai after e and au after o and the visarga h after the anusva_ra am. Also there do not exist s’ and s. in between va and sa as also ng n~ na the nasals which occur respectively at the ends of ka ca ta varga-s. [In other words the eight syllables ai, au, h, s’a, s.a, ng, n~ and na do not occur in Prakrit. Abhinavagupta adds four additional syllables which do not in Prakrit: r.r., l and l.] (18.8)

The subsequent verses are similar explanations of letters which occur in Prakrit such as ka, ga, ta, da, ya and va which are slightly audible; examples of cakra becoming cakka, occurrence of ha in place of five letters: kha, gha, tha, dha and bha as in: mukha = muha, megha = meha; katha_ = kaha_; the change of letter s.a into ccha as in s.at.pada (cchappao); the change of dha into d.ha (vardhana = vad.d.han.a). The elucidation and examples provided in 18.9 to18.27 are remarkable and impressive list of evidences of changes in word forms in Prakrit compared to Sanskrit.

Abhinavagupta adds a comment that Bharata has only given an indication. Those who want a detailed account should consult books like Prakritadipika. (The identity of this work has yet to be established).

Then, Bharata proceeds to discuss about different regional languages.

“These are the rules regarding Prakrit and Sanskrit languages (with reference to performances). Hereafter I shall explain the different types of regional languages. In the dramatic performance where Sanskrit and Prakrit tongues are employed four types of languages are to be used. In drama the languages are: 1. atibha_s.a_ (superhuman language), 2. a_ryabha_s.a_, 3. ja_tibha_s.a_ and 4. yonyantari_bha_s.a_ (language of the animals).” (18.28-30)

The use of the terms a_ryabha_s.a_ and ja_tibha_s.a_ by Bharata mirrors the use the terms a_ryava_cas and mlecchava_cas by Manu.

Bharata further explains the four languages (18.31 to 18.33):

Atibha_s.a_ is the language assigned to the gods (in dramas) while a_ryabha_s.a_ is that of the kings. The former is Vedic Sanskrit while the latter is refined and grammatically pure Classical Sanskrit. Ja_tibha_s.a_ is of two kinds in dramatic practice and are enumerated as mlecchabha_s.a_ and language of Bha_ratavars.a – mlecchas’abdopaca_ra_ ca bha_ratam vars.ama_s’rita_ -- Yonyantari_bha_s.a_ is that which is assigned to birds and animals both domestic and wild and it is conceived as na_t.yadharmi_ -- the conventional practice of dramas.

The distinction of ja_ti_bha_s.a_ into mleccha and Bha_ratam vars.a is instructive. Mleccha refers to the languages or dialects of the dvi_pa as distinct from the mainland.

This interpretation is further emphasized by the next verse (18.34-35): Pa_t.hya (the dramatic text) relating to ja_tibha_s.a_ is enumerated as of two kinds, namely, prakrita and samskr.ta and that applies to all the four varn.as. <b>Abhinavagupta adds a commentary: Samskr.ta is that grammatically refined language with proper endings of vowels and consonant and which distinguishes itself from a_ryabha_s.a_ where the vedic words occur in plenty.</b>

While discussing the choice of Samskr.ta and Prakr.ta, Bharata notes that <b>Sanskrit should not be employed to those (characters) who are intoxicated by prosperity, depravd in mind with poverty and those who are illiterate even though they belong to the uttama type. (Abhinavagupta gives the example of Arjuna in the disguise of Br.hannala_ for the last type).</b>

<b>For those who enter in disguise, Jaina monks, mendicants and wandering ascetics, the Prakr.t language may be employed. So also for children, persons affected by evil spirits, ladies, those possessing feminine qualities, persons of low characters, intoxicated ones and mendicants who professed religious marks, the language should be Prakr.t. (18.38-39).

Wandering ascetics, sages, Buddhist monks, uks.as (consecrated Brahmins), s’rotriyas (learned Brahmins) and those who wear religious marks should be assigned the Sanskrit language. For the queen (consecrated as Maha_devi_), courtesans, female artistes, Sanskrit should be employed depending upon the situation. The queen is expected to know the connotation of words relating to matters of alliance, martial preparation, the auspicious or inauspicious movements of planets and stars and the notes of birds foreboding good or bad omens. Hence she should be assigned the language of Sanskrit on the appropriate occasions. (18.40-43).</b> Bharata then goes on to enumerate others such as courtesans who should use Sanskrit, cestial nymphs who come down to earth who should use Prakr.t. He further adds (18.48): In the matter of dramatic performance the people belonging to Barbara ja_ti, kira_ta, a_ndhra, dramila, the regional language should NOT be assigned (by the playwright). O brahmins, for all people of all ja_ti, the variety of Prakr.t called s’auraseni_ is to be employed in poetical (viz., dramatic) compositions. Or it is upto the actors to use the local language at their will; for the text in the drama is but the poetical compositions of the different regions.

This astonishing injunction about the use of sauraseni_ dialect (among the Prakrits) is remarkable and points to the dvi_pa of Gujarat as the epicenter from which the cultures spread out into the Sarasvati river basin and bharata vars.a. Hemacandra’s Des’i_na_mama_la_ becomes a key resource in reconstructing sauraseni_ of Bharata’s times.

In 18.41-42, Bharata notes: the seven languages (or rather principal dialects used in a drama) are enumerated as ma_gadhi_, avantija_ pra_cya, s’auraseni_, ardhama_gadhi, ba_hlika and da_ks.in.a_ya. In the parlance of drama the languages of s’aka_ra, a_bhi_ra, can.d.a_la, s’abara, dramid.a, a_ndhra and low tongue of the forest tribe are referred to as vibha_s.a_ -- meaning a corrupt language or Prakr.t. Abhinavagupta notes that vibha_s.a_ is bha_s.a_pabhrams’a – a corrupted tongue in vogue among cave dwellers and nomads.

Bharata goes on to propound use of ma_gadhi_ by women folk of the royalty, ardhama_gadhi_ by cet.a (merchants, princes), pra_cya_ or eastern dialect for vidu_s.aka (jester), use of avanti for dhu_rta (rogues and gamesters), use of s’auraseni_ by heroines and her maids, use of da_ks.in.a_tya_ or southern dialect by soldiers and gallant citizens, use of ba_hli_ka dialect for gamesters, use of s’aka_rabha_s.a_ for characters like s’aka_ra (one who uses the letter s’ excessively, a frivolous person) and use of ca_n.d.a_li for pulkasa (despised mixed tribe). (18.53-56).

The makers of charcoal, hunters, wood-cutters and those who subsist by collecting leaves should be assigned the dialect of s’abara or other tongue of the forest dwellers. For the inhabitants of regions where elephants, horses, goat (aja), sheep (avi), and camels, exist the <b>dialects of a_bhi_ra or s’abara</b> may be employed. In the case of the dramid.as, the dramid.a language is to be used. The diggers of sub-terranean passages, the guards at the borders of the country, keepers of jail and protectors of horses should speak ma_gadhi_ as also the hero (of a drama) on life-saving situations. For those who live in the regions between the river Ganga and the (eastern) ocean the playwright conversant with their speeches should employ a language in which the vowel e is found predominantly. Abhinavagupta notes that eastern region is referred to by the term <b>ganga_sa_garamadhya</b>. (18.57-60).

In those regions located <b>between the vindhya mountains and the ocean (the south-western sea) one (the playwright) should employ a dialect in which the nasal consonant na is predominant. Similarly in the regions of Saura_s.t.ra and A_vanti and to the north of the river Vetravati_ one should employ the dialect where the consonant ca occurs excessively. On the Himalayan regions, sindhu and sauvi_ra countries the language presented should have the vowel u as prominent. On the banks of the river Carman.vati_ and around the regions of the arbuda (Aravalli mountain) the people speak a dialect in which the vowel o occurs excessively and hence the playwright should use it. In dramas the language should be assigned as in the above-said manner. Whaterver is not mentioned by me should be understood by learned people from popular usages. Thus the eighteenth chapter of the Natyas’astra of Bharata called ‘use of languages’ comes to an end. (18.61 to 65). </b>

In the next chapter, Chapter 19, Bharata elaborates on va_kyavidha_nam (use of sentences) including the appropriate use of addresses such as bhagavan, bhagavati_, a_rya, maha_ra_ja_, upa_dhya_ya, ta_ta, ra_jan. He further elaborates on seven notes, places of articulation, modes of articulation (uda_tta, anuda_tta, svarita, kampita), two types of intonations (sa_ka_nks.a_, nira_ka_nks.a_ -- requiring and not requiring a complement), six alanka_ra,use of ka_ku (ucca, di_pta and druta), delineation of rasa (ha_sya, s’r.nga_ra, karun.a, vi_ra, raudra, adbhuta, bi_bhatsa, bhayanaka), use of layas (time in music –druta, Madhya, vilambita), use of diphthongs (elongation in utterance of consonant in conjuction with vowels e o ai and au). (19. 1-84).

Thus, we have in Bharata’s rendition, a superb documentation of the history of language change as recorded in Bharata’s time. (pre-common era, by common consensus). An elucidation which explains why Samskr.ta inscriptions occur in regions outside Bharata vars.a – what is presently categorized as southeast asia along the Indian ocean rim -- and why Prakr.ta inscriptions occur within Bharatam (including S’rilanka).

The translations are sourced from: NP Unni, 1998, Natyas’astra, Delhi, Nag Publishers. This text follows the Malayalam translation of KP Narayana Pisharoti published in 1971.

The dates of Natyas’astra range from 500 BCE (Manmohan Ghosh) to 3rd century CE (AB Keith). The tradition is that na_t.ya descended at the request of Nahus.a; this tradition is recorded in the last chapter of Natyas’astra, titled Na_t.ya_vata_rah ‘descent of drama’.

http://sarasvati97.spaces.live.com/blog/cn...8!545.entry