12-02-2005, 09:01 PM
Dialogue January - March, 2004 , Volume 5 No. 3
Central Asia: Indian Literary Perception
B.B. Kumar
Jawaharlal Nehru, the first Prime Minister of independent India, in a
letter to his father written on 1st September 1922 from the Lucknow
District Jail, wanted to have books on Central Asia for the
fulfillment of his "desire to pay a visit by thought and fancy" to
this area. He also wrote about his plan "to undertake a long
pilgrimage as soon as swaraj self-rule is attained to the
neighbouring areas including the "famous cities of Central Asia".
Nehru has written about the history of the region also in his
Glimpses of the World History.
India and Central Asia have long tradition of socio-
cultural, political and economic contact since remote past. The two
regions have common and contiguous borders, climatic continuity,
similar geographical features and geo-cultural affinity. There has
been uninterrupted flow of men, material and the ideas between the
two. The Indian and foreign literary sources attest to the fact.
According to Zend Avesta, the ancestors of Iranian, Indian and
Turanian people were the three sons of Tratoria, namely, Arya,
Sairimia and Tura respectively. The two brothers, namely, Turk and
Mansak, were the ancestors of Turks and Mongols. Abu Qasim Farishta
gives a very interesting account of the geneology of the Indians and
the Central Asians.
The excavations in Southern Uzbekistan in the Amu Darya
valley, in Afrasiab in the north-eastern edge of Samarkand and
elsewhere in Uzbekistan, in Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan and in the Tak-
mak region of Kyrghyzstan provide ample proof of Indo-Central Asian
links from ancient days. Extensive excavations have been done with
remarkable findings at Kara Tepa, Fayaz Tepa, Dalverzin Tepa, Yer
Kurgan, Ak-Beshin, Kranayerezka and Isyk-Ata. Sakas, Kushanas, Hunas,
Turks and Mughals came from Central Asia to India. India had very
intimate historic, cultural links with eastern Central Asian regions
of Xinjiang and Tibet also. Findings of the excavations and the
discovery of manuscripts in Xinjiang and Tibetan literary documents
provide enough material to establish our links. India had rulers of
Central Asian origin. Dynasties of Indian origin ruled Khotan and
elsewhere in Central Asia.
The Indian epics and Puranas mention about the earth
consisting of seven dvipas the number varies in some cases. Dvipa,
ordinarily, means island. Panini derives it from dvi + ap,
meaning `land between two arms of water'.
However, the Puranic dvipas stand for continents or tribal or
national territories. It signified' all types of natural or human
regions � big or small.The barriers may be water, sand, swamp, high
mountains or thick forests. Jambudvipa is at the centre of all. Mount
Meru is at the centre of the Jambudvipa. It needs mention that India
and Central Asia form part of the Jambudvipa. Mount Meru is the Pamir
knot.
Details of the mountains, rivers, vegetation, climate, etc of the
dvipas have been given in most of the Puranas, and some scholars
tried to identify specific geographical region basing on the same. Al-
Beruni, as for example, located Pushkardvipa between Cina and Mangala
(perhaps China and Mongolia).Jambudvipa, also known as
Sudarshandvipa, is said to be circular in shape and surrounded by the
sea in all the sides. It has six mountain ranges � Himalaya,
Hemakuta, Nishadha, Nila, Sveta and Shringavat � and nine zones
(varshas) � Hari, Bhadrashva, Ketumal, Bharata, Uttar-Kuru, Sweta,
Hiranyaka, Airavata and Ilavrita. According to the Markandeya Purana,
Jambudvipa is depressed on the south and north and elevated and broad
in the middle. The elevated region is known II avrita or Meruvarsha;
mountain Meru is at the centre of the same. The nine divisions of
Jambudvipa according to different Puranas, such as Matsya Purana are:
Ilavrita, Ramyaka or Ramanaka, Hiranmaya or Hiranyaka, Uttara-Kuru or
Shringashaka, Bhadrashva, Ketumal, Hari, Kimpurusha and Bharata. The
first division, as mentioned above, is centrally located, the next
three and the last three in the north and south respectively, and the
remaining two, Bhadrashva and Ketumala to the east and west
respectively. The geographical detail of the region is given in the
Mahabharata's Bhishma parva in detail and in other puranas also.
Markandeya and Brahmand Purana divide jambudvipa into four regions
shaped like four petals of a lotus. From Dialogue Four rivers flow
from mount Meru; namely Sita, flowing to the east through mountains
to the Badrashva region to the sea; Alakananda flowing to the south
through India to the sea; Chakshu (or Vakshu or Oxus) flowing through
the mountains towards west to the Ketumal region, and Bhadra flowing
through northern mountains and Uttar Kuru region to the sea.
Vayu Purana details the mountain ranges, valleys river
systems, etc of the geographical region of Jambudvipa making it
possible to identify some of their geographical features. The
description of the northern regions of Jambudvipa, according to S.M.
Ali, `covers a very vast area, from the Urals and the Caspian to the
Yenisel and from the `Turkestan, Tien Shan ranges to the Arctic. It
describes topography of the whole land very accurately and in some
cases picturesquely �..' Bhadrashva, in the east, is identical with
the basins of Tarim and Hwangho rivers, i.e., the whole of Singkiang
and northern China'. Ketumala to the west of Meru, through which
river Chakshu (Oxus) flows, corresponds to western Turkestan. It is
believed to cover `practically the whole of the ancient Bactria which
included the whole of the present Afghan Turkistan (north of
Hindukush), the lower Harirud valley, the basin of Murkhab Kashka
system (all south of the old bed of Amu Darya) and the basins of the
Surkhan, Kafirnigan, Vakhsh and Yaksu rivers�' Hari and Bharata
represented western Tibet and India respectively. The area around
Meru, the mountaneous region, was Meruvarsha or Ilavrita. The area
across the Himalayas and Hindukush from Pamir up to Arctic was known
as Uttar Kuru. Arctic was known as Somagiri. There is numerous
mention of the region in the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, the two
Indian epics.
Valmiki, in the Ramayana, gives graphic picture of Uttar
Kuru and Somagiri. Sugriva, while sending the monkeys to the north
for searching Sita describes the route and the countries in that
direction. Among others, he commands them to search Sita in the lands
and towns of the Dardas, Kambojas, Yavanas and Shakas. He describes
Uttar Kuru and Somagiri (the arctic region). There is the sea and the
Somagiri in the extreme north. The route is extremely difficult one.
The region is without the sun and yet very much lighted. There are no
national boundaries there. Arjuna brought water from the northern sea
for the coronation of Yudhisthira.
Mahabharata describes Meru (Pamir), Meruvarsha around it,
Ketumala to its east, and Uttar Kuru to its north. Meru, according to
the Indian classical literature, is located at the centre of the
earth. The conference of the Devas (gods) was held at mount Meru to
Java decide about the churning of the sea.
Central Asian People in Indian Classical Literature
There is numerous mention of the people of the Central
Asia in Indian literature, especially in the Ramayana, as stated
above, and the Mahabharata and the Puranas. Shaka, Darada, Pahlava,
Kirata and Parada are said to be Kshatriyas of good birth. It was
suggested to invite Shaka, Pahlava, Rishik and Darada kings in the
Mahabharata war from Pandava side. Mahabharata mentions that Arjuna
brought tribute from Uttara Kuru and another Pandava hero, Nakula
defeated Hunas, Pahalvas, Yavanas and Shakas. Yudhisthira received
tribute from Uttar Kuru. Shakas, Hunas and Tusharas also paid tribute
to him. It needs mention that Tusharas are also known as Yueh-chi (in
Chinese language) and Kanishka belonged to that community. Tusharas
were present in the Rajasuya Yajna of Yudhisthira. They participated
in Mahabharata war from the Kaurava side. They were ferocious
warriors. The name of Tushara-Giri (Tushara mountain) finds mention
in Mahabharata, Harshacharita and Kavyamimansa. Chakshu river (Oxus
or Amu Darya) flows through Tushara, Lampak, Pahlava, Parada and
Shaka countries, according to the Vayu Purana and Matsya Purana. It
shows that these countries belonged to the Central Asia.
India's contact with Central Asia is ancient one. The
inhabitants of Uttar Kuru seem to be legendary fellows in the epics
and latter literature, but as historic ones in the Aitereya Brahmana
according to the author of Vedic Index. Uttar Kuru is the Divine land
(region of Devas) for Vasistha Satya Havya, but Atyarati wants to
conquer it. Indians remember jambudvipa during their daily worship
which includes Central Asia.
Immigration of the people from Central Asia to India is a
well-known fact of history. Shakas, Yavanas Hunas, Turks, Mongols and
Pathans came to India. Most of the immigrants were absorbed in Indian
society. Yavanas and the Maga Brahmanas came from the north-west.
Patanjali's Mahabhashya and Gargi Samhita echo frequent incursion of
the Greek chiefs from Bactria to India. Varahamihira, the famous
astronomer, was a Maga Brahmin. Here, it needs mention that Indian
tradition, says about out-migration of Shakas, Yavanas, etc from
India.
Sagara was an ancient Indian king. His father was
defeated and humiliated by some Kshatriyas. He was forced to live as
an ascetic in the forest. Sagar regained his kingdom in due course
and wanted to take revenge and kill his enemies. His priest Vashishta
intervened to save their lives. He persuaded Sagara to spare them.
They were forced to abandon their religiously ordained duty and
declared dead while living (Jivanmrita, a man abandoning his ordained
duties and considered dead while living). Brahmana priests abandoned
them as they stopped performing their religious duties. They were
degraded socially; became Vrishal/Vratya/Shudra/Kshatriya Shudra.
Sagara killed Haihayas and Talajangha Kshatriyas. Shakas, Yavanas,
Kambojas, Pardas and Pahlavas became Vrishala (Kshatriya Shudras)
According to Mahabharata, Shakas, Yavanas, Kambojas and Mahashakas
were Kshatriyas. They became Vrishala due to not availing the
benefits of the contact of the Brahmanas. Lack of proper conduct is
also said to be the reason for such degradation for Tushara and
others. Anushasan Parva of Mahabharata, further says that some,
kshatriya communities - Mekal, Dravida, Lat, Paundra, Kanvashira,
Darad, Darva, Chaur, Shabar, Barber, Kirat, and Yavana � were
degraded due to their envy for the Brahmanas. Manu Smriti regards
Shakas, Yavanas, as degraded Kshatriyas reduced to the status of
Vrishalas.
According to Sagara legend mentioned above, Shakas,
Yavanas, Kambojas, Pardas and Pahlavas were the inhabitants of India.
In historic time, they were mostly settled in the Central Asia and
the countries west of India. This phenomenon pre-supposes their out-
migration from India. Patanjali, in his Mahabhashya, considers
Shakas, and Yavanas to be the migrants from India.
As discussed above, considerable geographical information
about India and its neighbourhood in Central Asia is available in the
Puranas and the Indian epics. The same is the case with medieval
Indian literature. Kavyamimamsa of Rajshekhara, Kalhan's
Rajatarangini, some lexicons, Sanskrit and Buddhist prose narratives
and fables, etc provide valuable information in this direction.
Gunadhya's Brihatkatha, Somdeva's Katha-Saritsagar, Kshemendra's
Brihat-Katha-Manjari and its Jaina adaptation, Vasudeva-Hindi provide
valuable information and insight for understanding the geography and
other information about India and its neighbourhood. Kalidasa's epics
and dramas provide graphic picture of the northern mountain region of
India. This is especially so in the case of Meghdoota, and
Vikramorvashiam. He brings refreshing reference of Uttar Kuru.
The fables and narratives in the books mentioned above
provide valuable information based on the experiences of the
travellors. It needs mention that Central Asia was frequently visited
by Indian traders, monks and scholars. Ruling dynasties, such as that
of Khotan claimed Indian origin. Shakas, Hunas, Kushanas of Central
Asian origin ruled parts of India. Monarchs of Turk and Monghol
origin ruled India and continued to have Central Asian links to some
extent. The knowledge about the region was reflected in the classical
and medieval literature of India. In this connection, it needs
mention that perceptional haziness has developed due to change in the
names of regions, places, mountains, rivers and the people. There
have been shifting frontiers. One group of people have often replaced
the others. However, many names, items of trade, the geographical
features, etc have not changed considerable, Kubha, Gomati, and
Vakshu and Gandhar have become Kabul, Gomal, Oxus and Kandahar. The
community names of Shaka, Huna, Kushana have not changed. The items
presented to the Mahabharata hero/monarch Yudhisthira are still known
to be produced in the region. This has led many scholars to identify
the names of the Central Asia and co-relate them with those mentioned
in the Indian literature.
Tashkent, the capital city of Uzbekistan, and Samarkand,
the ancient capital of Sogdiana and that of Timur and Babar, are
ancient cities. The old name of Tashkent is Chach. Pulleyblank wanted
to connect it with Yenisseian word for `stone': Ket. Tyes, Kot.
shish, Pumpokolsk cys. He sees it as a relic of the Huna occupation
of the Sogdiana in the fifth and sixth centuries. However, as the
word finds place in the inscriptions of Shapur I (240-272 A.D.) and
therefore it had earlier currency. In the old Chinese records,
Tashkent is transcribed with the hieroglyph `shih' that is stone. The
name is linked with Turkic tash, `stone' and may be considered a
translation of the older names of the city. It is pointed out that
the older names of the city before `Chach' also had the
meaning `stone'. The inhabitants of the area, according to Chinese
sources were Ch'iang chu or K'ang chu, very likely of Tukharian
origin. K'ang may mean some kind of stone in Tokharian. In
Hindi, `kankar is pebble. According to Sutralamkara, a painter of
Pushkalawati visited the country Ashmaka (meaning stone or stoney)
and out of his piety decorated a Buddhist monastery. The place is
identified with Tashkent. There was a tradition that Sutralamkar was
written by Ashvaghosha. Others attribute its authorship to Kumarlat,
the founder of Sautrantika school of Buddhism. Ashmak, was the name
of a north-western country, according to the Brihatsamhita of
Varahamihira. Kumarajiva knew the great cities of the North like
Alasanda and Tashkent. The Name of Tashkent). It needs mention that
the word Tashkent first appears in Ta'rikh al-Hind of al-
Beruni.
The name Kanka appears in Mahabharata with the
names of other tribes of Central Asia. It is the same as Kang
mentioned earlier. At one place, it comes with Shakas and Tukharas
(Shakas tusharah kankascha; Mahabharata.At another place, it comes
with Shakas, Tusharas and Pahlavas (shakas tusharah
kamkashch.pahlavashcha. Kankas are mentioned twice in Bhagawata
Purana, together with the Kiratas, Hunas, Andhras, Pulindas,
Pukkasas, Abhiras, Yavanas and Khasas; and then again with Kiratas,
Hunas, Yavanas, Andhras, Khasas and Shakas. A point which needs to be
kept in mind here is that the names of the neighbouring communities
are often clubbed together in the classical Indian literature.
However, this is not done if the social factor, such as the mobility
in the social frame, is discussed.
Panini in his Ashtadhyayi has mentioned the word kantha.
The word in Kashika Sutra denotes `town' or `city'. The `kand'
or `kent'of Tashkent, Samarkand Yarkand, etc is the same as the
above-mentioned kantha. Tashkent and Yarkand, I am told, were also
known as `Dakshikantha' and `Yahvarkantha' respectively. The Sanskrit
word for `Turk' is Turushka. The first syllable of the name is found
in the name of `Turvasu' in classical Indian literature. The second
syllable `shka' is a superlative suffix found in the name of
Kanishka; the meaning of `Kanishka' is the youngest son.
The last syllable of the Central Asian nations is `stan'. It
is related to the Sanskrit `sthan` and Persian `stan', denoting land
or place. Kasyapa was a seer and progenitor of the living world
according to the Indian mythology. Phrigia is called Phrugia in
Greek. Indian literature has Bhrigu, a seer. I am not sure
whether `Phoenic" of the word `Phoenician' can be derived from
Semitic roots. Sanskrita has the word "Banik', the traders. I feel
the deep study of the languages and cultures of Central Asia may help
Indians in understanding themselves better. The reverse may be
equally true.
Babar was the founder of his own empire in India. He came
from Farghana valley. He has written much about his native place,
about the wars he fought in his native place, in his Babarnama. He
compares and contrasts, gives massive information about the land, the
climate, and the people, their way of of living, housing, village
settlement pattern, vegetation, fruits, etc. He detests India's heat
and dust; nostalgically remembers Central Asian melons. Abul Fazal
mentions about the cultivation of melons in India. Not only Babarnama
and Ain-e-Akbari, but the memoirs of other of Delhi Sutanate and
Moghal kings also provides information about Central Asia, the Sufis
and others coming from there.
Many travelers from India have written there accounts of
the land and the people of Central India. M.N. Roy, Raja Mahendra
Pratap, Rahul Sankrityayan and others visited the region and have
written about the same. Raja Ranjit Singh of Punjab sent his envoys
there. Mohan Lal's wrote his travel accounts. Iqitidar Sidiqi was
there. Tarikhe Munajile Bukhara by Fazil Khan is a well written book.
Unlike Britishers, who had the tendency to denigrade, the Indian
travellors wrote about the region and the people with warmth and as
they saw it.
In Hindi language, the history of Central Asia by Rahul
Sankrityayan is published in two volumes (Madhya Asia ka Itihas).
Sarthavah (in Hindi) by Dr. Motichandra provides valuable information
about the trade routes between India and Central Asia. However, much
more need to be done by Indian and Central Asian scholars to re-
discover their links from the ancient days to the present. The works
of some of the scholars in this case needs mention, which are: The
geography of the Puranas by S.M. Ali Cunningham's Ancient geography
of India, edited by S. Majumdar Shastri, N.L. Dey's The Geographical
Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval India and D.C. Sirkar's
Cosmography and Geography in Early Indian Literature.
http://www.asthabharati.org/Dia_Jan.04/cen...sia%20kumar.htm
Central Asia: Indian Literary Perception
B.B. Kumar
Jawaharlal Nehru, the first Prime Minister of independent India, in a
letter to his father written on 1st September 1922 from the Lucknow
District Jail, wanted to have books on Central Asia for the
fulfillment of his "desire to pay a visit by thought and fancy" to
this area. He also wrote about his plan "to undertake a long
pilgrimage as soon as swaraj self-rule is attained to the
neighbouring areas including the "famous cities of Central Asia".
Nehru has written about the history of the region also in his
Glimpses of the World History.
India and Central Asia have long tradition of socio-
cultural, political and economic contact since remote past. The two
regions have common and contiguous borders, climatic continuity,
similar geographical features and geo-cultural affinity. There has
been uninterrupted flow of men, material and the ideas between the
two. The Indian and foreign literary sources attest to the fact.
According to Zend Avesta, the ancestors of Iranian, Indian and
Turanian people were the three sons of Tratoria, namely, Arya,
Sairimia and Tura respectively. The two brothers, namely, Turk and
Mansak, were the ancestors of Turks and Mongols. Abu Qasim Farishta
gives a very interesting account of the geneology of the Indians and
the Central Asians.
The excavations in Southern Uzbekistan in the Amu Darya
valley, in Afrasiab in the north-eastern edge of Samarkand and
elsewhere in Uzbekistan, in Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan and in the Tak-
mak region of Kyrghyzstan provide ample proof of Indo-Central Asian
links from ancient days. Extensive excavations have been done with
remarkable findings at Kara Tepa, Fayaz Tepa, Dalverzin Tepa, Yer
Kurgan, Ak-Beshin, Kranayerezka and Isyk-Ata. Sakas, Kushanas, Hunas,
Turks and Mughals came from Central Asia to India. India had very
intimate historic, cultural links with eastern Central Asian regions
of Xinjiang and Tibet also. Findings of the excavations and the
discovery of manuscripts in Xinjiang and Tibetan literary documents
provide enough material to establish our links. India had rulers of
Central Asian origin. Dynasties of Indian origin ruled Khotan and
elsewhere in Central Asia.
The Indian epics and Puranas mention about the earth
consisting of seven dvipas the number varies in some cases. Dvipa,
ordinarily, means island. Panini derives it from dvi + ap,
meaning `land between two arms of water'.
However, the Puranic dvipas stand for continents or tribal or
national territories. It signified' all types of natural or human
regions � big or small.The barriers may be water, sand, swamp, high
mountains or thick forests. Jambudvipa is at the centre of all. Mount
Meru is at the centre of the Jambudvipa. It needs mention that India
and Central Asia form part of the Jambudvipa. Mount Meru is the Pamir
knot.
Details of the mountains, rivers, vegetation, climate, etc of the
dvipas have been given in most of the Puranas, and some scholars
tried to identify specific geographical region basing on the same. Al-
Beruni, as for example, located Pushkardvipa between Cina and Mangala
(perhaps China and Mongolia).Jambudvipa, also known as
Sudarshandvipa, is said to be circular in shape and surrounded by the
sea in all the sides. It has six mountain ranges � Himalaya,
Hemakuta, Nishadha, Nila, Sveta and Shringavat � and nine zones
(varshas) � Hari, Bhadrashva, Ketumal, Bharata, Uttar-Kuru, Sweta,
Hiranyaka, Airavata and Ilavrita. According to the Markandeya Purana,
Jambudvipa is depressed on the south and north and elevated and broad
in the middle. The elevated region is known II avrita or Meruvarsha;
mountain Meru is at the centre of the same. The nine divisions of
Jambudvipa according to different Puranas, such as Matsya Purana are:
Ilavrita, Ramyaka or Ramanaka, Hiranmaya or Hiranyaka, Uttara-Kuru or
Shringashaka, Bhadrashva, Ketumal, Hari, Kimpurusha and Bharata. The
first division, as mentioned above, is centrally located, the next
three and the last three in the north and south respectively, and the
remaining two, Bhadrashva and Ketumala to the east and west
respectively. The geographical detail of the region is given in the
Mahabharata's Bhishma parva in detail and in other puranas also.
Markandeya and Brahmand Purana divide jambudvipa into four regions
shaped like four petals of a lotus. From Dialogue Four rivers flow
from mount Meru; namely Sita, flowing to the east through mountains
to the Badrashva region to the sea; Alakananda flowing to the south
through India to the sea; Chakshu (or Vakshu or Oxus) flowing through
the mountains towards west to the Ketumal region, and Bhadra flowing
through northern mountains and Uttar Kuru region to the sea.
Vayu Purana details the mountain ranges, valleys river
systems, etc of the geographical region of Jambudvipa making it
possible to identify some of their geographical features. The
description of the northern regions of Jambudvipa, according to S.M.
Ali, `covers a very vast area, from the Urals and the Caspian to the
Yenisel and from the `Turkestan, Tien Shan ranges to the Arctic. It
describes topography of the whole land very accurately and in some
cases picturesquely �..' Bhadrashva, in the east, is identical with
the basins of Tarim and Hwangho rivers, i.e., the whole of Singkiang
and northern China'. Ketumala to the west of Meru, through which
river Chakshu (Oxus) flows, corresponds to western Turkestan. It is
believed to cover `practically the whole of the ancient Bactria which
included the whole of the present Afghan Turkistan (north of
Hindukush), the lower Harirud valley, the basin of Murkhab Kashka
system (all south of the old bed of Amu Darya) and the basins of the
Surkhan, Kafirnigan, Vakhsh and Yaksu rivers�' Hari and Bharata
represented western Tibet and India respectively. The area around
Meru, the mountaneous region, was Meruvarsha or Ilavrita. The area
across the Himalayas and Hindukush from Pamir up to Arctic was known
as Uttar Kuru. Arctic was known as Somagiri. There is numerous
mention of the region in the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, the two
Indian epics.
Valmiki, in the Ramayana, gives graphic picture of Uttar
Kuru and Somagiri. Sugriva, while sending the monkeys to the north
for searching Sita describes the route and the countries in that
direction. Among others, he commands them to search Sita in the lands
and towns of the Dardas, Kambojas, Yavanas and Shakas. He describes
Uttar Kuru and Somagiri (the arctic region). There is the sea and the
Somagiri in the extreme north. The route is extremely difficult one.
The region is without the sun and yet very much lighted. There are no
national boundaries there. Arjuna brought water from the northern sea
for the coronation of Yudhisthira.
Mahabharata describes Meru (Pamir), Meruvarsha around it,
Ketumala to its east, and Uttar Kuru to its north. Meru, according to
the Indian classical literature, is located at the centre of the
earth. The conference of the Devas (gods) was held at mount Meru to
Java decide about the churning of the sea.
Central Asian People in Indian Classical Literature
There is numerous mention of the people of the Central
Asia in Indian literature, especially in the Ramayana, as stated
above, and the Mahabharata and the Puranas. Shaka, Darada, Pahlava,
Kirata and Parada are said to be Kshatriyas of good birth. It was
suggested to invite Shaka, Pahlava, Rishik and Darada kings in the
Mahabharata war from Pandava side. Mahabharata mentions that Arjuna
brought tribute from Uttara Kuru and another Pandava hero, Nakula
defeated Hunas, Pahalvas, Yavanas and Shakas. Yudhisthira received
tribute from Uttar Kuru. Shakas, Hunas and Tusharas also paid tribute
to him. It needs mention that Tusharas are also known as Yueh-chi (in
Chinese language) and Kanishka belonged to that community. Tusharas
were present in the Rajasuya Yajna of Yudhisthira. They participated
in Mahabharata war from the Kaurava side. They were ferocious
warriors. The name of Tushara-Giri (Tushara mountain) finds mention
in Mahabharata, Harshacharita and Kavyamimansa. Chakshu river (Oxus
or Amu Darya) flows through Tushara, Lampak, Pahlava, Parada and
Shaka countries, according to the Vayu Purana and Matsya Purana. It
shows that these countries belonged to the Central Asia.
India's contact with Central Asia is ancient one. The
inhabitants of Uttar Kuru seem to be legendary fellows in the epics
and latter literature, but as historic ones in the Aitereya Brahmana
according to the author of Vedic Index. Uttar Kuru is the Divine land
(region of Devas) for Vasistha Satya Havya, but Atyarati wants to
conquer it. Indians remember jambudvipa during their daily worship
which includes Central Asia.
Immigration of the people from Central Asia to India is a
well-known fact of history. Shakas, Yavanas Hunas, Turks, Mongols and
Pathans came to India. Most of the immigrants were absorbed in Indian
society. Yavanas and the Maga Brahmanas came from the north-west.
Patanjali's Mahabhashya and Gargi Samhita echo frequent incursion of
the Greek chiefs from Bactria to India. Varahamihira, the famous
astronomer, was a Maga Brahmin. Here, it needs mention that Indian
tradition, says about out-migration of Shakas, Yavanas, etc from
India.
Sagara was an ancient Indian king. His father was
defeated and humiliated by some Kshatriyas. He was forced to live as
an ascetic in the forest. Sagar regained his kingdom in due course
and wanted to take revenge and kill his enemies. His priest Vashishta
intervened to save their lives. He persuaded Sagara to spare them.
They were forced to abandon their religiously ordained duty and
declared dead while living (Jivanmrita, a man abandoning his ordained
duties and considered dead while living). Brahmana priests abandoned
them as they stopped performing their religious duties. They were
degraded socially; became Vrishal/Vratya/Shudra/Kshatriya Shudra.
Sagara killed Haihayas and Talajangha Kshatriyas. Shakas, Yavanas,
Kambojas, Pardas and Pahlavas became Vrishala (Kshatriya Shudras)
According to Mahabharata, Shakas, Yavanas, Kambojas and Mahashakas
were Kshatriyas. They became Vrishala due to not availing the
benefits of the contact of the Brahmanas. Lack of proper conduct is
also said to be the reason for such degradation for Tushara and
others. Anushasan Parva of Mahabharata, further says that some,
kshatriya communities - Mekal, Dravida, Lat, Paundra, Kanvashira,
Darad, Darva, Chaur, Shabar, Barber, Kirat, and Yavana � were
degraded due to their envy for the Brahmanas. Manu Smriti regards
Shakas, Yavanas, as degraded Kshatriyas reduced to the status of
Vrishalas.
According to Sagara legend mentioned above, Shakas,
Yavanas, Kambojas, Pardas and Pahlavas were the inhabitants of India.
In historic time, they were mostly settled in the Central Asia and
the countries west of India. This phenomenon pre-supposes their out-
migration from India. Patanjali, in his Mahabhashya, considers
Shakas, and Yavanas to be the migrants from India.
As discussed above, considerable geographical information
about India and its neighbourhood in Central Asia is available in the
Puranas and the Indian epics. The same is the case with medieval
Indian literature. Kavyamimamsa of Rajshekhara, Kalhan's
Rajatarangini, some lexicons, Sanskrit and Buddhist prose narratives
and fables, etc provide valuable information in this direction.
Gunadhya's Brihatkatha, Somdeva's Katha-Saritsagar, Kshemendra's
Brihat-Katha-Manjari and its Jaina adaptation, Vasudeva-Hindi provide
valuable information and insight for understanding the geography and
other information about India and its neighbourhood. Kalidasa's epics
and dramas provide graphic picture of the northern mountain region of
India. This is especially so in the case of Meghdoota, and
Vikramorvashiam. He brings refreshing reference of Uttar Kuru.
The fables and narratives in the books mentioned above
provide valuable information based on the experiences of the
travellors. It needs mention that Central Asia was frequently visited
by Indian traders, monks and scholars. Ruling dynasties, such as that
of Khotan claimed Indian origin. Shakas, Hunas, Kushanas of Central
Asian origin ruled parts of India. Monarchs of Turk and Monghol
origin ruled India and continued to have Central Asian links to some
extent. The knowledge about the region was reflected in the classical
and medieval literature of India. In this connection, it needs
mention that perceptional haziness has developed due to change in the
names of regions, places, mountains, rivers and the people. There
have been shifting frontiers. One group of people have often replaced
the others. However, many names, items of trade, the geographical
features, etc have not changed considerable, Kubha, Gomati, and
Vakshu and Gandhar have become Kabul, Gomal, Oxus and Kandahar. The
community names of Shaka, Huna, Kushana have not changed. The items
presented to the Mahabharata hero/monarch Yudhisthira are still known
to be produced in the region. This has led many scholars to identify
the names of the Central Asia and co-relate them with those mentioned
in the Indian literature.
Tashkent, the capital city of Uzbekistan, and Samarkand,
the ancient capital of Sogdiana and that of Timur and Babar, are
ancient cities. The old name of Tashkent is Chach. Pulleyblank wanted
to connect it with Yenisseian word for `stone': Ket. Tyes, Kot.
shish, Pumpokolsk cys. He sees it as a relic of the Huna occupation
of the Sogdiana in the fifth and sixth centuries. However, as the
word finds place in the inscriptions of Shapur I (240-272 A.D.) and
therefore it had earlier currency. In the old Chinese records,
Tashkent is transcribed with the hieroglyph `shih' that is stone. The
name is linked with Turkic tash, `stone' and may be considered a
translation of the older names of the city. It is pointed out that
the older names of the city before `Chach' also had the
meaning `stone'. The inhabitants of the area, according to Chinese
sources were Ch'iang chu or K'ang chu, very likely of Tukharian
origin. K'ang may mean some kind of stone in Tokharian. In
Hindi, `kankar is pebble. According to Sutralamkara, a painter of
Pushkalawati visited the country Ashmaka (meaning stone or stoney)
and out of his piety decorated a Buddhist monastery. The place is
identified with Tashkent. There was a tradition that Sutralamkar was
written by Ashvaghosha. Others attribute its authorship to Kumarlat,
the founder of Sautrantika school of Buddhism. Ashmak, was the name
of a north-western country, according to the Brihatsamhita of
Varahamihira. Kumarajiva knew the great cities of the North like
Alasanda and Tashkent. The Name of Tashkent). It needs mention that
the word Tashkent first appears in Ta'rikh al-Hind of al-
Beruni.
The name Kanka appears in Mahabharata with the
names of other tribes of Central Asia. It is the same as Kang
mentioned earlier. At one place, it comes with Shakas and Tukharas
(Shakas tusharah kankascha; Mahabharata.At another place, it comes
with Shakas, Tusharas and Pahlavas (shakas tusharah
kamkashch.pahlavashcha. Kankas are mentioned twice in Bhagawata
Purana, together with the Kiratas, Hunas, Andhras, Pulindas,
Pukkasas, Abhiras, Yavanas and Khasas; and then again with Kiratas,
Hunas, Yavanas, Andhras, Khasas and Shakas. A point which needs to be
kept in mind here is that the names of the neighbouring communities
are often clubbed together in the classical Indian literature.
However, this is not done if the social factor, such as the mobility
in the social frame, is discussed.
Panini in his Ashtadhyayi has mentioned the word kantha.
The word in Kashika Sutra denotes `town' or `city'. The `kand'
or `kent'of Tashkent, Samarkand Yarkand, etc is the same as the
above-mentioned kantha. Tashkent and Yarkand, I am told, were also
known as `Dakshikantha' and `Yahvarkantha' respectively. The Sanskrit
word for `Turk' is Turushka. The first syllable of the name is found
in the name of `Turvasu' in classical Indian literature. The second
syllable `shka' is a superlative suffix found in the name of
Kanishka; the meaning of `Kanishka' is the youngest son.
The last syllable of the Central Asian nations is `stan'. It
is related to the Sanskrit `sthan` and Persian `stan', denoting land
or place. Kasyapa was a seer and progenitor of the living world
according to the Indian mythology. Phrigia is called Phrugia in
Greek. Indian literature has Bhrigu, a seer. I am not sure
whether `Phoenic" of the word `Phoenician' can be derived from
Semitic roots. Sanskrita has the word "Banik', the traders. I feel
the deep study of the languages and cultures of Central Asia may help
Indians in understanding themselves better. The reverse may be
equally true.
Babar was the founder of his own empire in India. He came
from Farghana valley. He has written much about his native place,
about the wars he fought in his native place, in his Babarnama. He
compares and contrasts, gives massive information about the land, the
climate, and the people, their way of of living, housing, village
settlement pattern, vegetation, fruits, etc. He detests India's heat
and dust; nostalgically remembers Central Asian melons. Abul Fazal
mentions about the cultivation of melons in India. Not only Babarnama
and Ain-e-Akbari, but the memoirs of other of Delhi Sutanate and
Moghal kings also provides information about Central Asia, the Sufis
and others coming from there.
Many travelers from India have written there accounts of
the land and the people of Central India. M.N. Roy, Raja Mahendra
Pratap, Rahul Sankrityayan and others visited the region and have
written about the same. Raja Ranjit Singh of Punjab sent his envoys
there. Mohan Lal's wrote his travel accounts. Iqitidar Sidiqi was
there. Tarikhe Munajile Bukhara by Fazil Khan is a well written book.
Unlike Britishers, who had the tendency to denigrade, the Indian
travellors wrote about the region and the people with warmth and as
they saw it.
In Hindi language, the history of Central Asia by Rahul
Sankrityayan is published in two volumes (Madhya Asia ka Itihas).
Sarthavah (in Hindi) by Dr. Motichandra provides valuable information
about the trade routes between India and Central Asia. However, much
more need to be done by Indian and Central Asian scholars to re-
discover their links from the ancient days to the present. The works
of some of the scholars in this case needs mention, which are: The
geography of the Puranas by S.M. Ali Cunningham's Ancient geography
of India, edited by S. Majumdar Shastri, N.L. Dey's The Geographical
Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval India and D.C. Sirkar's
Cosmography and Geography in Early Indian Literature.
http://www.asthabharati.org/Dia_Jan.04/cen...sia%20kumar.htm