Islamism - 6

[acharya]

The Persian conquest of Jerusalem in 614CE compared with Islamic conquest of 638CE.
Its Messianic nature and the role of the Jewish Exilarch
By Ben Abrahamson and Joseph Katz

Abstract:
Explores the conquests of Jerusalem in 614CE and 638CE within the context of previous attempts at Jewish restoration. Discusses reasons for a Persian-Jewish alliance and later a Judeo-Arab alliance. In an attempt to reconcile contemporary sources, an account is given of Babylonian Jewish Exilarch Nechemiah ben Hushiel, his brother Shallum (Salmaan Farsi) and nephew Yakov (Ka'b Al-Ahbar) who played pivotal roles in these conquests. Proposes that the twelve men who went to Mecca to meet with the Prophet were Jewish refugees from Edessa, by way of Medina. Suggesting that the authors of Sefer Zerubavel and of the Prayer of Shimon bar Yochai were Jews from Medina. Jerusalem and the Temple, attempts at restoration After the destruction of the Jewish Temple (70 C.E) and subsequent Jewish Revolt (135 C.E.), Jerusalem passed into the hands of Rome. It's name was changed by the Romans to Aelia Capitolina and Jews were officially forbidden to
live there.

Jerusalem, however, continued to serve as the focal point of Jewish national and spiritual aspirations. The hope of again making Jerusalem the capital of the Jewish Nation and rebuilding the Temple was kept alive among the Jews and Temple sympathizers dispersed in many countries

1. It is estimated that about six million Jews lived throughout the Roman Empire and another two million lived under the Persian Empire.
2 The Jews living in the Persian Empire were wealthier and enjoyed a much greater degree of freedom than their co-religionists living in the Roman Empire. At times the Jews in Persia attained semi-autonomy, collecting taxes and managing their own small army. Jews accounted for perhaps as much as 10% of the Roman Empire. The Roman government tried to influence its sizeable Jewish population, especially during it’s many wars with Persia
3, by rewarding or punishing Jews through it’s policies towards Jerusalem. It was in the interest of Rome to hint at promises of 'restoring Jerusalem' to try and sway its Jewish population from siding with Rome's long time enemy, or to Roman Invitations and Jewish attempts to rebuild the Temple 70 C.E., Temple is Destroyed
100 C.E., Trajan gives Jews permission to rebuild the Temple which, however, they neither could nor would make any use. 118 C.E., Hadrian allows the Jews to return to Jerusalem and grants permission for the rebuilding of their Holy Temple, but soon reneges.
132 C.E., Rebel Bar Kochba re-institutes ritual sacrifice in Jerusalem. Aspirations of rebuilding Jewish Temple.
138 C.E., Antoninus Pius allows Jews to return to Jerusalem.
332 C.E., 'Bordeaux Pilgrim' reports that Jews anoint the "lapis perfusus" rock near Hadrian's statues on Temple Mount.
333 C.E., Edict of Milan, Jews start to build Temple.
362 C.E., Julian besieges the Persian city of Ctesiphon. Julian plans to rebuild the Temple and even begins construction.
438 C.E., Eudokia (wife of Theodosius II) gives the Jews permission to pray on Temple Mount.
443 C.E., Eudokia permits Temple reconstruction.
512 C.E., Jewish Exilarch Mar Zutra II tries to make Jewish State in Persia
525 C.E., Joseph Asher Dhu Nuwas, King of the Jewish Kingdom of Arabia, revolts against Rome with Persian help.
584 C.E., Maurice sent Jewish builders from Constantinople to Jerusalem to repair Julian's structure on Temple Mount.
614 C.E., Persian-Jewish alliance conquers Jerusalem, and attempt to construct a temple on Temple Mount
638 C.E., Judeo-Arab alliance conquers Jerusalem. Jews build wooden Temple on Temple Mount
691-692 C.E., Dome of the Rock is built by 'Abd al-Malik on site of Jewish Temple punish them for misbehavior by further desecration of the sacred place
4 . These policies inflamed Jewish nationalism and may have helped to keep it alive.

Declaration of Jewish Independence, first in Persia then Arabia
With its elements of magic removed, al-Tabari's tale touched on a real incident. In 517, the enthronement of a Persian Rabbinite king led Christians to seize a major town of the Himyarite kingdom. After mustering an army, Dhu-Nuwas inflicted a costly defeat on the rebels, taking many prisoners, and destroying their church. In imitation of his cousin Mar Zutra II

94 who had declared his independence from Kovad in Persia, Dhu-Nuwas carried out some rash acts that eventually involved him in difficulties and brought misfortune to him and the kingdom of Himyar.

95 News of this deed soon reached Byzantium, a challenge of this sort could not go unpunished. But the Roman emperor, Justin I, was embroiled in a war with the Persians and a Samaritan revolt in Israel. He decided to write to the Christian king of Ethiopia, who was a good deal closer to Himyar, to act as Christendom's avenger. The Ethiopian king was more than anxious to oblige the emperor's request. In 518, when Ethiopian troops landed in Himyar. Dhu-Nuwas's forces soundly defeated the invaders. Flushed with success, he now saw himself as the champion of Arabian Jewry. It has been suggested by some scholars that Dhu-Nuwas's ultimate objective was the creation of a Jewish empire stretching from Babylon to the Red Sea.

96 In the meantime, a revolt in the northern Himyarite center of Najran (c. 523), which was inhabited chiefly by Christians, led to many casualties. The town's governor, a Christian named Harith (Aretas) ibn-Kaleb, although a feudatory of Dhu-Nuwas, resented his status as a vassal to the Rabbinite king (he may also have not performed his feudal duties in the war against Aidug). In any case, the governor's feelings were paralleled by the town's Christian population, which also refused to obey the king's orders. When the Najran rebels spurned Dhu-Nuwas's peace terms, he besieged the town and reduced its inhabitants to such straits as they were forced to capitulate.
Harith and several hundred of the rebels were executed, and burned in a great trench.
97 A heavy tribute was also levied on the remaining Christians in the kingdom in reprisal for the persecution of Jews in Christian countries
98 The Roman emperor, although anxious to eliminate the Rabbinite king, was still engaged in a conflict with Persia and preferred that his Ethiopian ally undertake the task. The Ethiopian Negus (ruler), Kaled Ella Asbaha, required little persuasion to go to war, for Himyar had expelled many of his nation (the Cushites) from Arabia. Dhu-Nuwas did not remain idle. He endeavored unsuccessfully to secure allies. The Arab tribes distrusted him because of his foreign lineage and Kavad I of Persia, in spite of predecessor's promises of assistance, did not like the idea of
autonomous armed Jewish kingdoms.

99 In Mahoza, he crucified Mar Zutra and Haninai on charges of misuse of the king's revenue, and now found it easy to simply ignore Dhu Nuwas' pleas.
By the year 525 CE, the Ethiopians and the Romans were ready to strike. The Negus of Ethiopia had put together and equipped a powerful army, and the Roman emperor had provided his ally with the necessary fleet to transport the troops to Himyar. Dhu-Nuwas took measures to prevent the landing of the Ethiopian army by barring the most likely invasion points with chains.

100 His efforts, however, proved fruitless, and the Ethiopian troops were able to disembark near Zafora (Thafar) on the Red Sea coast. Asbaha had taken steps to inform the Christian Arabs of the region of his plans, and they attacked the Himyarites as Dhu-Nuwas deployed his army to meet the invasion force of the Ethiopians. In the ensuing battle, the Rabbinite king fell back on his
faithful, courageous cavalry to repel the invaders, but they were overwhelmed by the larger army of the enemy. The capital of Dhu-Nuwas fell into the hands of the enemy, along with his wife, and all the treasures of his kingdom. Realizing that all was lost, and unwilling to be taken alive, the impetuous king charged his steed over a great rock jutting over the sea. The waves swept his body out to sea. So died the first and last Rabbinite king of Himyar.

101 But the royal family did not die out, we will revisit them when we explore the marriages between the Jews and the Quraish, the family of the Prophet.

102 After-effects of the Failed Attempts at Jewish Independence In Arabia, Eriat was granted rulership over Yemen by Abyssinia, a position he held until he was
assassinated by one of his army leaders, Abraha. Abraha, after reconciliation with the king of Abyssinia, took rulership over Yemen and built a Cathedral in San'a to advance Christianity in Arabia. Some of the leadership in Mecca, the Quraish, defiled this Cathedral by going to the bathroom in its halls. In Arabia, where laws of purity were derived from the Temple laws of Tumah and Taharah, this invalidated the house of worship for prayer and was the greatest insult. Abraha commanded his soldiers to demolish the Ka‘bah in Mecca. In 570 CE, Utilizing a massive attack on war-elephants which failed, he and his soldiers came to be known as the “Men of the Elephant”. This is the traditional year when the Prophet Muhammad is born. After the “Elephant” incident, the people of Yemen, under the leadership of Ma‘dikarib bin Saif Dhu Yazin Al-Himyari, and through Persian assistance, revolted against the Abyssinian (Ethiopian) invaders, restored independence and appointed Ma‘dikarib as their king. However, Ma‘dikarib was assassinated by an Abyssinian. About this time, the Ma'rib dam again collapsed,
the main irrigation infrastructure was destroyed. In 575 CE, Khosrau, the Persian king, appointed a Persian ruler over San‘a and thus made Yemen a Persian colony. The family of Dhu Yazin was thus deprived of royalty forever, as the Persian rulers maintained rulership of Yemen.
This had the effect of bringing Arabia in direct contact with Persia, and Bedouins were now seen encamped on the western bank of the Euphrates river. 581 CE, Hormisdas IV king of Persia, tyrannized the Jews, forcing many to flee, including the leaders of the academies; Roman Emperor Maurice defeated Hormizdas after a 4-year campaign. During this time there were many marriages between the Quraish and Jews in Arabia. The daughter of 32nd Exilarch Hofnai married Asad ibn Hashim, and Fatima the mother of the future Khalif, 'Ali abu Talib was born.

In 591 CE, Khosrau II became the Sassanid king of Persia. He followed Khosrau I's liberal policy towards the Jews. Within the Persian royal circles, the Jews had recognized rights and privileges, but due to the fanaticism of the people they were unable to exercise them. The doors of the academies remained shut and there remained much hatred between the Jewish and non- Jewish population. Khosrau considered the idea of relocating the some of the Jews, but the opportunity had not presented itself.
The failure of Persia to come to the aid of the Jews had lasting effects in both Babylon and Arabia. The Arabs blamed the Persians as untrustworthy, and felt the Jews of Persia had abandoned Dhu Nuwas.

103 Arabia was split between those who were for Persia and those for Byzantium. The role of Rabbinite Jews as teachers and judges in Arabia began to be resented;
anger at their claims of superiority and "pure" blood inflamed certain Arab tribes. The Exilarch, for his part, vowed revenge on the treachery of Kovad at Mahoza. Still others of the royal family, like Hushiel ben Hofnai, took to the study of Jewish Mysticism and angels. Hushiel distained the materialism of the previous Exilachs, and locked his children in his palace safe from riots, pogroms and politics. Hushiel had two sons, Nehemiah and Shallum – who destiny would be intertwined with the future of the Prophet.

<b>Conquest and Disaster at Jerusalem</b>
After the conquest of Caesarea, the entire country of Israel willingly submitted to Khosrau. The remnants of the Hebrew people took in hand their native zeal [The translation is uncertain: perhaps "manifesting desire for their homeland"] wrought very damaging slaughters among the multitude of believers. Going to the Persians, the Jews united with them. At that time, the army of the king of Persia was stationed at Caesarea in Israel.

119 The Jews and the Persians were joined by Benjamin of Tiberias, a man of immense wealth, who enlisted and armed additional soldiers. The Tiberian Jews, with those of Nazareth and the mountain cities of Galilee, marched on Jerusalem with the Persian division commanded by Shahrbaraz (Rhazmiozan 120 ). Later they were joined by the Jews of southern Israel; and supported by a band of Arabs, the united forces took Jerusalem by storm (July, 614 CE).

121 Shahrbaraz spoke with the inhabitants of Jerusalem so that they submit voluntarily and be kept in peace and prosperity. Now at first the citizens of Jerusalem submitted, offering the general and the princes very great gifts, and requesting that a loyal ostikan, governor, be stationed with them to preserve the city.

122 Five years after his appointment to lead the conquest of Israel, and the "ingathering of the Jewish nation", the Exilarch Nehemiah was made ruler of Jerusalem.
123 The Exilarch was a strong young man, handsome and adorned in royal robes.
124 He began the work of making arrangements of the rebuilding of the Temple, and sorting out genealogies to established a new High Priesthood.
125 The Jews were exuberant, but an uneasy, explosive, tension was in the air. Several months later a riot occurred in the city. A mob of the young Christians united and killed Nehemiah ben Hushial and his "council of the righteous".
126 They dragged their bodies through the street and dumped them over the city wall.

127 Then the Christians rebelled from Persian service. After this a battle took place among the inhabitants of the city of Jerusalem, Jew and Christian. The multitude of the Christians grew stronger, struck at and killed many of the Jews.
The remainder of the Jews jumped from the walls, and went to the Persian army in Caesarea.

128 Then Xorheam assembled his troops and went and encamped around Jerusalem and invested it, warring against it for 19 days. Digging beneath the foundations of the city, they destroyed the wall. On the 19th day of the siege, the Judeo-Persian forces took Jerusalem. They put their swords to work for three days they slaughtering almost all the people in the city. Stationing themselves inside the city, they burned the place down.

129 According to Christian sources, the troops were then ordered to count the corpses; the figure reached 57,000. Thirty-five thousand people were taken alive, among whom was a certain patriarch named Zak'aria who was also custodian of the Cross.

130 Later sources would claim that the Jews purchased Christian slaves in order to slaughter them.

131 The Jews sought for the Staff of Aaron, the "Rod of Hefzibah"
132 , which they assumed to be what the Christians called "the remnant of the Holy Cross". They began to torment the clerics, executing some. Finally the
clerics pointed out the place where it was hidden. The Persians took it into captivity and also melted the city's silver and gold, which they took to the court of the king.
133 In conjunction with the Persians, the Jews swept through Israel, destroyed the monasteries which abounded in the country, and expelled or killed the monks. Bands of Jews from Jerusalem, Tiberias, Galilee, Damascus, and even from Cyprus, united and undertook an incursion against Tyre, having been invited by the 4,000 Jewish inhabitants of that city to surprise and massacre the Christians on Easter night. The expedition, however, miscarried, as the Christians of Tyre learned of the impending danger, and seized the 4,000 Tyrian Jews as hostages. The Jewish invaders destroyed the churches around Tyre, an act which the Christians avenged by killing two thousand of their Jewish prisoners. The besiegers, to save the remaining prisoners, withdrew.

134 The immediate results of these wars filled the Jews with joy. Many Christians became Jews through fear. A Sinaitic monk embraced Judaism of his own free will, and became a vehement assailant of his former belief.
135 The Judaic Nation was free from the Christian yoke for about fourteen years; and they seem to have deluded themselves with the hope that Khosrau would
resign Jerusalem and a province to them, in order that they might establish a Jewish commonwealth.
136 The Pivotal Years The Roman response was swift, to counter the Jewish insolence there was the largest ever meeting of Merovingian Bishops, the Fifth Council of Paris in Gaul (France), They decided that all jews holding military or civil positions must accept baptism, together with their families. Massive Jewish persecutions began to occur throughout Roman Empire. When news of the sack of Jerusalem reached Khosrau, he was terrified. He did not intend it to go this far. Now regarding those who had been arrested, an order was issued by the king to have mercy on them, to build a city and to settle them there, establishing each person in his former rank/profession. He commanded that the Jews be driven from the city, and the king's order was quickly implemented, with great urgency.

137 The Jewish troops were stationed outside the Eastern Gate of the Temple Mount.
138 The distrust between the Jews and Khosrau reached its lowest point, as the Jews said that Khosrau had acted treacherously and plotted the assassination of Nehemiah.
139 There arose great discord between the allies, which ended in the deportation of many Jews to Persia.
140 Shallum, Nehemiah's brother was sold into slavery, until his redemption ten years later. Within a year after this victory the Persian troops over-ran Jordan, Israel and the whole of the Sinai Peninsula, and reached the frontiers of Egypt. Arabia was split between those who were for Persia and those for Byzantium. In Mecca, the followers of the Prophet, who had declared his support for Rome, were being fought under the command of the chiefs of the Quraish. The conflict had reached such a stage that in 615 CE, a substantial number of the Muslims had to
leave their homes and take refuge with the Christian kingdom of Habash, Abyssinia, which was an ally of the Byzantine Rome. The Romans were losing more and more ground every next day. In Asia Minor the Persians beat and pushed back the Romans to Bosporus, and in 617 CE, they captured Chalcedon (modern, Kadikoy) just opposite Constantinople. As a gesture to Rome, Khosrau issued an order to grant amnesty to prisoners. He orders Jewish soldiers to leave Jerusalem and forbade Jews to settle within a three mile radius of the city.

141 The Persians placed a certain Christian archpriest named Modestos over the city as governor.

142 Disillusioned with Persian promises, the Jewish soldiers did not heed Khosrau and continued to encamp outside golden gate. By 619 CE, the whole of Egypt had passed into Sassanid hands and the Persian armies had reached as far as Tripoli. The Emperor sent an envoy to Khosrau, praying that he was ready to have peace on any terms, but he replied, "I shall not give protection to the emperor until he is
brought in chains before me and gives up obedience to his crucified god and adopts submission to the fire god." But Khosrau, as a gesture to the Romans, allowed Heraclius to attack the Jewish troops outside the Golden Gate. The Persians withdrew all support. Trapped, the Romans violently slaughtered the Jewish regiment outside Golden Gate and left bodies to rot.

143 As many as 20,000 were killed. The Golden Gate was sealed. In Arabia, the year it was called "the Year of Sorrow".

144 It was during these events that the Prophet had his "Night Journey" vision, flying from Mecca to Jerusalem on a winged animal. Heraclius, unsatisfied with Persian gestures, went on a rampage killing every Jew found in Israel. Men, women and children are killed without mercy, sparking the author of "The Prayer of Shimon bar Yochai" to bemoan how quickly the Priests grant forgiveness to the soldiers after committing such attrocities. By 622 CE, the Roman Emperor Heraclius had assembled an international army against the Persians. He had retaken Judea from the Sassanid Persians and the Jewish cause looked hopeless. Signs of the Coming of the Prophet With the death of Nehemiah ben Hushiel, the Judaic nation tried to grapple with the meaning of these events in terms of their literary heritage. They would come to the Golden Gate to pray.

145 According to Jewish tradition, the Messiah of Joseph would die.
146 So Nehemiah must have been the Messiah of Joseph. This meant that the King Messiah was sure to follow. However, before the King Messiah would appear, he would be preceded by Elijah the Prophet. Their leaders said "A Prophet is about to arise; his time draws near. We shall follow him; and then we shall slay [our enemies] with [divine] slaughter…"
147 As the common people became aware of the Prophet, "they spoke one to another – surely know that is the same Prophet whom the Jews [Cohenim, Priests] are warn us about ."
148 Daniel had prophesied that there would be seventy weeks of years until the Temple would be rebuilt. And 490 (70x7) years had passed from the destruction of Bar Kochba's armies until this year (622 CE). Bar Kochba was a failed Messiah, now would come the true warrior Messiah. "A warrior with 'the helmet of deliverance on His head' and clad in armor".

149 "He will don garments of vengeance (as his) clothing and will put on a cloak of zealousness".

150 "He will fight the battle of Gog ha-Magog and against the army of Armilos (Heraclius)".

151 Although rare, even in Arabia, parents hoping that their child might be this Messiah might name him after Daniel, Ish hamudot,
152 Man of Delights – Muhamud.
In 620 CE, the Prophet Muhammed overcome by despondency at these successive developments, and by the renewed opposition of the Quraish, set out for Tayif (sixty or seventy miles to the east of Mecca). The Prophet was working hard to turn the hearts of the Arabian tribes from their fallacies. Against the Sadducean traditions, he stressed resurrection from the dead, and the importance of prayer five times a day. After being unsuccessful in trying to convince them of his message, he was met by the Prophet Addas at the outskirts of the city. Here he received a vision of concerning the souls of those slaughtered at the Golden Gate. These "souls of the Garden" or Jinn, Genii

153, accepted the Prophets message. The Qur'an puts it: "And when [the Lord] turned towards you a party of the Jinn who listened to the Quran; so when they came to it, they said: Be silent; then when it was finished, they turned back to their people warning (them). They said: O our people! we have listened to a Book revealed after Moses verifying that which is before it, guiding to the truth and to
a right path".

154 In short the Jewish souls were willing to accept his message.
The Jews seek a New Leader The "council of the righteous", i.e. twelve people representing the tribes of the Jews convened at the city of Edessa. When they saw that the Persian troops had departed and left the city unprotected, they closed the gates and fortified themselves. They refused entry to Roman troops.
Heraclius gave the order to besiege it. When the Jews realized that they could not resist militarily, they promised to make peace. Opening the city gates, they appeared before Heraclius. Heraclius ordered that they should go and stay in their own place [Yathrib]. So they departed, taking the road through the desert to Tachkastan to Arabia.

155 The Jews called the Arabs to their aid. Their situation was desperate. They tried to support their arguments through quotes from the Torah. Although the Arabs were agreed that they were similar in faith, they were unable to achieve any commitment on military support, for they were divided from each other by their form of religion.

156 The Romans had blocked all Hagg pilgrimages to Jerusalem, and so many were making the 'Umra, the minor pilgrimage to Mecca instead. The people of Yathrib had traveled to Mecca to ask questions of the Prophet, and a few converts had already been made. During the Hagg pilgrimage of 620 CE, six or seven people of the Judaic tribe of Khazraj had declared allegiance to the Prophet. During the Hagg pilgrimage of 621 CE, the "council of the righteous", met with the Prophet together with representatives of the Khazraj and the Aus. The Prophet ordered them all to assemble together and to unite in faith. He set out the principles of religious coexistence between Jew and non-Jew, the seven laws of Noah.

157 As far as Israel and its re-conquest by Rome, he said: "God promised that country to Abraham and to his son after him, for eternity. And what had been promised was fulfilled during that time when [God] loved Israel. Now, however, you are the sons of Abraham, and God shall fulfill the promise made to Abraham and his son on you. Only love the God of Abraham, and go and take the country which God gave to your father, Abraham. No one can successfully resist you in war, since God is with you".
158 So pleased with this response, the council pledged their allegiance to the Prophet in what is called "the first pledge of Al-Aqabah ". During the Hagg pilgrimage of 622, seventy residents of Yathrib pledged their lives to support the Prophet. This was "the second pledge of Al-Aqabah." They invited the Prophet to Yathrib to be their king. On June 20, fleeing the pro-Persian persecution of the Quraish, the Prophet and Abu Bakr traveled from Mecca southward to the cave of Thaur. On Yom Kippur, September 24, 622CE, the Prophet arrived safely in Yathrib, being announced from the rooftops by a Jew.

159 Being an urban dweller of Mecca, the Prophet kept the lunar calendar of the Sadduceans who did not accept Hillel II's mathematical calendar.

160 When he arrived in Yathrib he was surprized to find the Jews fasting. He ordered his followers to immediately begin to fast, even midday. For 18 months, the Prophet took apon himself the Rabbinite traditions. Not since Dhu Nuwas, had such a Rabbinite ruler tried to unite the diverse tribes of Arabia. The Prophet was officially elected king of Yathrib (Medina), by the council of elders. The charter of Medinah was drawn up declaring the rights and mutual military obligations of the Jewish and Judaic followers of the Prophet.
161 A Mosque for the Prophet was built on the ruins of an ancient Synagogue.

162 As Heraclius was attacking both Jew and heretic, the economy of Yatrib was
strained by Jewish and Christian refugees. The Prophet consolidated the strength of his followers, and the kernel of an Islamic state was formed. The fame of the Prophet had grown, even Shallum ben Hushiel, the brother of Nehemiah, heard of the Prophet's fame as he was picking dates for his slave master in the outskirts of the city. In general, Arabs trace their roots to one of two major tribes Qahtan (Zealots) and Adnan (Sadduceans). When the two tribes joined in Medina to create what became the first Islamic society led by the Prophet, those related to Qahtan were named al-Ansar (Helpers) who were the residents of Medina at that time; and those from Adnan and their allies who traveled to Medina and were called al-Muhajireen (Immigrants). The Byzantine called them Ishmaelites and Hagarenes.
Meanwhile the Persians were beginning to loose. Heraclius had retaken Judea from Sassanid Persians, and marched as far as Ecbatana, the ancient capital of the Medes. Heraclius had set off quietly for Trabzon from Constantinople via the Black Sea and started preparations to attack Persia from rear.

163 Changing of the Qiblah For four years, Heraclius had declared absolute and total war on the Jews. The Persians had abandoned them as well. In the years after the slaughter of the Jewish troops at the Golden Gate, Heraclius sought other ways to punish the Jews for the insolence. In addition to the first forced conversions in history to be sanctioned by the imperial government occurring throughout the Roman Empire, Heraclius sought to strike at the heart of their faith. In an affront reminiscent of the defiling of the Cathedral of Sana, he ordered the Temple Mount to be used as the city's latrines. Some aqueducts were rerouted to the Temple Mount at a slightly lower elevation, to allow a flow of water to the Temple Mount. This was not hard to do because in ancient times the water had been used to wash the blood of sacrifices away from the Temple mount. Heraclius also installed a beautiful statue of an unclothed lady, which according to Sefer Zerubavel, inspired further immoral deeds on the Temple Mount.

164 In the literature of the time, the Temple Mount was referred to as "House of filth near the market."

165 The filth, "which was then all about the holy sanctuary, had settled on the steps of the gates so that it even came out into the streets in which the gate opened, and it had accumulated so greatly as almost to reach up the ceiling of the gateway."

166 Years later, the Muslims would call the Church of the Anastasis al-qumamah, the Dungheap, because of the disrespect of the Christians towards the Temple Mount.

167 To the Judaic Nation, this was an insult. To the Sadduceans of Arabia this was a crisis. The Sadduceans were particular in cleanliness, equating cleanliness with the biblical concepts of Taharah, purity. Arabs traditions said that the ancient Israelites would cut off their skin, should any waste fall on it. The Arabs would not pray in the direction of a bathroom, nor go the bathroom while facing the holy places of Jerusalem or Mecca. The Rabbinites however continued to pray towards Jerusalem. This troubled the Prophet. In the end he was answered by a divine revelation which indicated that the faithful should not pray towards Jerusalem, only
towards Mecca. Further, this would be the mark of distinction between his followers and others. Dhu Nuwas was born of foreign descent; he adopted foreign customs and tried to unite the Arab tribes under a foreign banner, and failed. The Prophet Muhammed was an Arab. He was of the tribe of the Quraish; and they had been resident in Arabia for over six hundred years. Their version of Sadducean Judaism was closer to the heart of the Arabian tribes than any Persian custom. The Sura Al-Baqara (the sacrificial cow) was given at this time. It is a Sura written primary to a Jewish audience, yet the laws of Salat, Prayer; Zum Fasting; Zakat, Charity; Haj, Pilgramage and Jihad, Religious War reflect an intention to back away from the Prophets original embrace of Rabbinite custom and return to Sadducean custom. For example, the laws forbidding wine, and of mourning during Ramadhan (Sefirah) to include complete fasting during the day. The Prophet envisioned an Umma (Judaic Nation) of the faithful that had different modes of religious worship. The non-Jews would follow the Mesanî

168 , the seven laws of Noah. The Jews would keep the Sabbath and Kosher laws: "The Sabbath was appointed only for those who were distinguished by it, and the Lord will judge them on the Day of Resurrection according to their distinction."

169 As there was a change of Qibla, there was a change in the war. Heraclius started his counter attack in 623 CE. from Armenia. Next year, in 624 CE, he entered Azerbaijan and destroyed Clorumia, the birthplace of Zoroaster, and ravaged the principal fire temple of Persia. This was the same when the Muslims their first victory at Badr.

The Battle of Badr, 'Uhud and Khandaq; the Expulsion of the Priestly Tribes
As mentioned above, the Bani Qainuqa, Bani Al-Nadir and Bani Quraizah were tribes made up of Cohenim, Priests. The Bani Qainuqa were the priests of the Khazraj and the Bani al Nadir and the Bani Quraizah were the priests of the Aus.

171 Because of their Cohen status and careful marriages; they had a certain prestige as the only native population the Rabbinite Jews still considered "Jews". As Cohenim they performed teaching, religious, judicial and semi- governmental services to their client tribe. When the Prophet began to become more than a Prophet, and function as judge, ruler and military chief, these "Jews" – more than any other tribe in Medinah – began to oppose the Prophet. In addition, Khaibar was settled by the remants of the Sadducean High Priesthood, and at one time they had controlled the Ka'aba. They held a particular animosity to the Quraish, the Prophet included, who had taken back religious control from them.

172 In 624 CE, Mecca attacked Medina without success at the battle of Badr. The three tribes mentioned above had actually hoped that the pro-Persian Quraish would have won. Three Sadducean "prophets" who predicted the future success of the Persians, were assassinated by the zealous followers of the Prophet.

173 The Bani Qainuqa openly and collectively broke their covenant. Descendants of the fighters of Bar Kochba, they were proud of their bravery and valor. Being blacksmiths by profession even their children were well armed and they could instantly muster 700 fighting men from among themselves. They were also arrogantly aware that they enjoyed the protection of the the Khazraj. Abdullah bin 'Ubbay (Abbaya), the chief of the, Khazraj, was their chief supporter. The Prophet laid siege to their quarters. The siege had hardly lasted for a fortnight when they surrendered and all their fighting men were tied and taken prisoners. Abdullah bin 'Ubayy came in support of them and insisted that they should be pardoned. The Prophet conceded his request and decided that the Bani Qainuqa would be exiled from Madina leaving their properties, armor and tools of trade behind.

174 In 625 CE, the Quraish met the Prophet's army at 'Uhud. They resolved to avenge their defeat at Badr. The Bani Nadhir would not prophecy in support of the Prophet. With poor morale, only a thousand men had marched out with the Prophet against three thousand men of the Quraish, and three hundred Jews under Abdullah ibn Ubayya returned. During the battle of Uhud the Prophet was wounded and his followers suffered reverses. The opponents of the Prophet in Medina were further emboldened. The chief of the Bani Amir treacherously slaughtered seventy followers of the Prophet. Afterwards, Amr bin Umayyah Damri slew by mistake two men of the Bani Amir in retaliation. These two actually were actually allies, and had been mistaken for the enemy. Because of his mistake their blood money became obligatory on the Prophet. Since the Bani an-Nadir were the priests of the Bani Amir, the Prophet went to them to ask for their help in paying the blood money. While he was there, he received a divine revelation that the Bani Nahdir were going to assassinate him. He left suddenly and ordered their expulsion from Medina. Meanwhile Abdullah bin Ubayy sent them the message that he would help them with two thousand men and that the Bani Quraizah and Bani Ghatafan also would come to their aid; therefore, they should stand firm and should not go. On this false assurance they responded to the Prophet's ultimatum saying that they would not leave Madinah. The Prophet laid siege to them, and after a few days of the siege they agreed to leave Madinah on the condition that they could retain all their property which they could carry on thee camels, except the armor.

175 In 627 CE, the battle of Khandaq (Battle the Trench) took place. The Meccans had left 'Uhud, without despoiling the people of Medina. The Prophet foresaw that they would return again to attack Medina. Steps were immediately taken to protect the city. The Prophet was joined by Shallum ben Hushiel, after freeing him from slavery. Although only in his late twenties, Shallum was knowledgeable in many tactics of war. He suggested to the Prophet to build trenches around the city, something that had never been seen in Arabia before. There was a combined raid by many of the Arab tribes, who wanted to crush the power of Madinah. It had been instigated by the leaders of the Bani an-Nadir, who had settled in Sadducean Cohen-City Khaiber after their banishment from Madinah. They went round to the Quraish and Ghatafan and Hudhail and many other tribes and induced them to gather all their forces together and attack Madinah jointly.

176 An unprecedentedly large army of the Arab tribes marched against the small city of Madinah. From the north came Bani an-Nadir and Bani Qainuqa who after their banishment from Madinah, had settled in Khaiber and Wad il Qura. From the east advanced the tribes of Ghatafan, Bani Sulaim, Fazarah, Murrah, Ashja, Sa'd, Asad, etc. and from the south the Quraish, along with a large force of their allies. Together they numbered from ten to twelve thousand men. They laid siege to Medina without success. They succeeded partially to incite the Cohen tribe of Bani Quraizah, who inhabited the south eastern part of the city, to rebellion against the Prophet. Meanwhile the Prophet went on the offensive and routed the combined armies. After discovering the aborted treachery of the Bani Quraizah, he dispatched Ali with a contingent of soldiers as vanguard towards the Quraizah. This was followed by the whole of the Muslim forces. In the end, unlike any previous treatment of the Cohenim, all the male members of the Quraizah were executed, their women and children were taken prisoner, and their properties were distributed among the Muslims.

177 Christian followers antagonistic to Jewish followers of the Prophet Up to 624 CE, there is little allusion to Christianity in the Qu'ran. Early reference to nasaara,
178 Christians had been to the sabioona, Judaic Sabians, who were also called nazoreans.
179 They were descendants of Temple Sympathizers who were rejected by Sadducees and Rabbinites, and had begun to accept Christianity. As far as the Prophet was concerned they were all part of the Judaic Nation, descendants of Abraham, and People of the Book. But the Heraclius' persecutions of Jews and heretics had brought many Syrian Christians to Medinah, ansar. Though differing in doctrine, all these Christians had one thing in common, their hatred for the
Jews. The Prophet had been influenced in his early years by a Sabian prophet Bahira

180 who had recognized in him the "mark of prophethood". Although the Prophet's first experience of Christianity was the Sabian variety, few in number, and some of which were astrologers. After 622 CE, the numbers of more traditional Christian followers who declared their submission began to swell. The Prophet had bitterness towards the Sadduceen Cohenim, because they had not aided him in his campaigns according to his expectation. He wished to purge Arabia of these false prophets and priests. The Christians converts wanted to enlarge on this. They wanted to make the war between Muslim and non-believer, to one of Muslim against Jew.

181 After seeing the results of this resentment – the slaughter of the Quraizah – Shallum, son of the Exilarch Hushiel, perceived the dreadful predicament, went to Prophet, and offered him his submission.

182 PDF created with pdfFactory trial version www.pdffactory.com
Shallum ben Hushiel (Salmaan Farsi) finds the Prophet Shallum was the son of the Exilarch Hushiel, who had turned to mysticism during some of the worst persecutions of Persian King Kovad.

183 Shallum was the second son, after Nehemiah. While Nehemiah was groomed to be the next Exilarch, Shallum was kept hidden in the Exilarch's palace, a virtual prisoner, to protect him from the Mazdokite riots.

184 Shallum's learning and position increased over the years, until he obtained the position of custodian of the academy, where his duty was to see that the learning was continuous and did not stop for a single hour, day or night.

185 One day the Exilarch was very busy with his duties and he said to Shallum: "My son, as you see, I am too busy to go out to the estate now. Go and look after matters there for me today." On the way he crossed the Euphrates river and saw the camps of Arabian Bedouin which attracted his attention. They spoke about the wars in Ash-Sham, Syria Palestine, and Shallum felt drawn to their cause.

186 He was stirred by the feelings of nationalism then current, and felt no great loyalty to the Persian ruler. Several times the Persians had betrayed the Jews, and even tried twice to wipe out the Exilarch. They had even crucified his great-grand father Mar Zutra III and Mar Haninai on the bridge of Mahoza on charges of misuse of funds.

187 After his father found out about his nationalistic intentions, he reprimanded Shallum. He became upset and afraid that Shallum would leave. So he kept Shallum locked up in the palace and put a chain on his feet.

188 After the passing of Hushiel in 608 CE, Nehemiah was appointed by
Khosrau as the symbolic leader of the Persian troops. Shallum accompanied his brother's caravan to Israel. He admired his brother, who was an ascetic who longed for the Hereafter and engaged in worship day and night.

189 After Nehemiah's violent and tragic death and the decree
for all Jews to leave Jerusalem, Shallum attached himself to a band of soldiers who revolted from Persian command. The Persians cruely suppressed the revolt and Shallum was sold into slaverly. He was taken to Wadi al-Qura (between Madinah and Syria) and sold as a servant to a Jewish resident there. Eventually Shallum was sold to the Jew's nephew belonging to the tribe of Banu Quraizah. This nephew took Shallum with him to Yathrib. At that time the Prophet was inviting his people in Mecca to Islam but Shallum did not hear anything about him then because of the harsh duties which slavery imposed upon him. When the Prophet reached Yathrib after his hijrah from Mecca (in 622), Shallum was in fact at the top of a palm tree belonging to his master doing some work. He took dates to the Prophet as a gift, and was impressed by the Prophet's scrupulous honesty, especially compared to the house of the Exilarch which was mired in dubious fiscal policies. Shallum declared his submission to the Prophet.

190 Although Shallum tried to keep his background a secret, it turned out that Prophet's foster brother, Ali ibn abu Talib, was related through his mother Fatima to the Exilarch line. Learning of the royal descent of Shallum, in 624 CE, Ali encouraged the Prophet to release Shallum from slavery by paying his Jewish master.

191 When word began to spread about Shallum, it led to rumors among the Jews that Nehemiah ben Hushiel had been resurrected from the dead, and in the presence of the Prophet Elijah.

192 Shallum began to play an important role in the struggles of the growing Muslim state. He was known as Salman al-Farsi, Shallum the Persian. At the battle of Khandaq, he proved to be an innovator in military strategy. He suggested digging a trench or khandaq around Madinah to keep the Quraish army at bay. When Abu Sufyan, the leader of the Makkans, saw the ditch, he said, "This stratagem has not been employed by the Arabs before." Shallum became known as
"Salman the Good". He was a scholar who lived a rough and ascetic life.

193 In 625CE, the Persians were defeated by Romans in attack on Constantinople. The Byzantine forces continued to press the Iranians hard and in the decisive battle at Nineveh (627 CE) they PDF created with pdfFactory trial version www.pdffactory.com dealt them the hardest blow. They captured the royal residence of Dastagerd, and then pressing forward reached right opposite to Ctesiphon, capital of Iran in those days. In 628 CE. in an internal revolt, Khosrau Parvez was imprisoned and eighteen of his sons were executed in front of him and a few days later he himself died in the prison. This was the year when the peace treaty of Hudaibiya was concluded, which the Quran has termed as "the supreme victory", and in this very year Khosrau's son, Kovad II, gave up all the occupied Roman territories, restored the True Cross and made peace with Byzantium. In 628 CE, the Emperor himself went to Jerusalem to install the "Holy Cross" in its place, and in the same year the Holy Prophet entered Makkah for the first time after the Hijrah to perform the `Umra-tul-Qada'.

194 Meanwhile wholesale persecution of the Jews continued, in 629CE, Dagobert orders the Jews of the Frankish empire to accept baptism or to emigrate.

195 In 629 CE, there was the battle of Khaibar. The Cohenim of Khaibar had not shown any hostility toward the Muslims until the leaders of Banu al Nadir settled among them. The most prominent leaders of Banu al Nadir who settled in Khaibar were Salam ibn Abu al Haqiq, Kinanah ibn Abu al Haqiq, and Huyayy ibn Akhtab. When they came to Khaibar, the people accepted their leadership.

196 The leadership of these three men was enough to drag the Cohenim of Khaibar into conflict aimed at retaliation against the Muslims. During the Battle of Khandaq, the Cohanim of Khaibar, led by the leaders of Banu al Nadir, hoped to regain control of the Ka'aba. They played a significant role in the incitement of Quraysh and the desert Arabs against the Muslims. The Prophet sent a letter to them, via Ali and Shallum (Salmaan Farsi), calling them to submit to the Prophet and reminding them of what their own Scriptures said about his coming.

197 . Ali managed to convince the guards to open the fortress gate. Ali took a lead role in the siege. Shallum also was awarded lands in Khaibar for his role in the battle. In spite of the Muslims' desperate need before Khaibar, the Prophet would have preferred the Cohen's submission to receiving their booty, as is made clear by his command to Ali. Nor did he want to destroy or expel the Cohenim; for this reason he accepted the peace agreement which the Cohenim of al Qamus, al Watih and Salalim offered. After the agreement – according to which the Cohenim accepted expulsion from Khaibar – had been made, he agreed to let them stay in Khaibar according to their request, an indication of tolerance and justice. Prophet allowed the Cohenim to stay in Khaibar on the condition that they work in agriculture and spend their own money on it, and that the Muslims would receive one half of their crops.

198 Unlike the Banu Quraiza, the men of Khyabar were not executed and their women and children were not made slaves. This was directly due to the mediation of Ali and Shallum (Salmaan Farsi). There were many followers of the Prophet who were not happy at this state of affairs, particulary the Christian followers of the Prophet, and the tension between the groups threatened to come to a boil. To Save the Jews of Israel from Byzantine slaughter In 628, After the defeat and death of Khosrau, Heraclius came as victor into Jerusalem. The Jews of Tiberias and Nazareth, under the leadership of Benjamin of Tiberias, changed sides and joined him as allies. It is said that the Emperor would have kept peace with them had not fanatic monks instigated him to a massacre. Only a few Jews escaped into Egypt or sought refuge in caves and in forests.

199 In atonement for the violation of an oath to the Jews, the monks pledged themselves to a fast, which the Copts still observe.

200 Heraclius is said to have dreamed that destruction threatened the Byzantine Empire through a circumcised people. He therefore proposed to destroy all Jews who would not become Christians; and he is reported to have counseled Dagobert, king of the Franks, to do the same.

201 In the Tiburtine Sibyl said that the Jews of the Byzantine Empire would be converted in one hundred and twenty years (by 628 CE).

202 In 630 CE, the Prophet, with 10,000 Islamic warriors, captured Mecca without resistance. After claiming the religious center of the Ka'aba, the Prophet was now the spiritual and military leader of all Arabia and all muslims. For the first time, the various militias of Arabia were able to gather together under one leader, not even under Dhu Nuwas was there this amount of unity. It might have ended here, but with increased pressure from the Judaic tribes of Arabia, and constant assurances from Shallum, that the Exilarch's people would come to the aid of the Prophet, the horizons of Islam began to grow. The first goal outside Arabia was to save the Jews of Israel from Byzantine slaughter.

203 Shallum may also have dreamed of Jerusalem as his capital. The troops assembled "from Havilah to Shur."

204 All the remnants of the sons of Israel assembled and united with the Arabs and became a large force. Under the command of Ali and Shallum, they entered the Sinai, opposite Egypt. The Byzantine army was encamped in Arabia (trans-Jordan). The Muslims fell upon them suddenly, struck them with the sword and put to flight Emperor Heraclius' brother, Theodosius. Then the Muslims turned and encamped in Arabia (trans-Jordan).

205 After this first victory against an international army, the Prophet sent letters to all rulers of the world explaining Islam. In his letter to Heraclius, he demanded that he relinquish Israel. He dispatched a message to the Byzantine emperor, saying: "God gave that country as the inherited property

206 of Abraham and of his sons after him. We are the sons of Abraham. It is too much that you hold our country. Leave in peace…" The Emperor rejected this. He did not provide a fitting response to the message but rather said: "The country is mine. Your inheritance is the desert [Arabia]. So go in peace to your country."

207 Just before he fell sick, the Prophet had given orders for an expedition to Israel. Usama ibn Zeid led a contingent of soldiers as far as Yavneh near modern day Tel Aviv.

208 Death of the Prophet, Abu Bakr's Appointment, and Shallum's Rebellion
In 632 CE, the Prophet Muhammed passed away. The council of Medina tried to elect a successor, Sa'd ibn 'Obada of the Khazraj, but the Muslims were bitterly divided, they even considered appointing two leaders: Judaic (Khazraj) and Sadducean (Quraish). A small number of companions of the Prophet chose Abu Bakr as Khalif, replacement. The followers of 'Ali did not approve of this, because it meant that the government would be controlled by the family of Quraish. 'Ali himself delayed in doing homage to Abu Bakr. Shallum attempted to rally some
Bedouin tribes to depose Abu Bakr. Judaic and disaffected Sadduceans joined forces against Abu Bakr and his general Khalid. Khalid's forces were made up of many Christian converts to Islam. At least five kahanah, cohens, prophets had appeared in Arabia who claimed to be prophets along with Muhammad: a Judaic prophet in Medina and the prophetess Hefzibah (Sajah); and three Sadducean prophets al-Musaylimah al-Kathib, al-Aswad and Tulayha ibn Khuwaylid. Some of the prophets had been assassinated during Muhammed's lifetime, but now the Judaic prophetess Hefzibah arrived from Mesopotamia at the head of a great host and joined Musaylamah in Yamamah.
209 Musaylamah's army of forty thousand achieved a degree of success against the first troops sent against him by Abu Bakr. Musaylamah's forces retreated into
a garden surrounded by high walls. This garden later became known in history as the garden of death. The Muslims had never experienced this amount of fighting among themselves before. There were many deaths and much destruction. Many "readers", Muslims who recited the Qur'an by heart, were killed on both sides.
210 The rebellion was crushed, and Shallum fled to Al- Bahrein.
211 This group of Judaic zealots would later be called the Kharajites.

212 Abu Baker did much to try and unite the faithful. He brought the mutinying tribes back under his control and he began to collect the fragments of what would become the Qur'an. But the struggle for unity of Islam brought about the codification of Islam, and the diversity that was once apparent under the Prophet was lost. Islamic tradition ascribes the preservation of Islam to Abu Bakr: "On the death of Mohammad, in a little bit the Faithful would have perished utterly. But the Lord strengthened the heart of Abu Bakr, and established us in the resolve to give place not for one moment to the Kafir;—giving answer to them but in these three words Submission, Exile, or the Sword."

213 In reality one form of Islam was being raised above the others, the Quraish'
Sadducean variety as espoused by a major influx of Christian converts to Islam. But for now, there was peace between all the factions for the sake of the new faith. The Conquest of Persia and Shallum's Return Chaldea and southern Syria belong geographically to Arabia. The Judaic tribes inhabiting this region, partly (at least in name) Christian, formed an integral part of the Judaic nation and as such fell within the immediate scope of the new faith. Four years previously (627 CE), Heraclius had marched from the Black Sea and decisively routed the Persians on the field of Nineveh.

214 He advanced triumphantly to the gates of the Persian capital. The Persians troops mutinied and killed Persian king Khosrau in November, 628 CE. In the space of four years afterwards, the royal title was assumed by nine candidates, who disputed, with the sword or dagger, the fragments of an exhausted monarchy.

215 Being informed of the chaos in Persia and the threat to Jews in Babylon, Shallum (Salmaan Farsi) longed to go there. Seeing rebellion and discord
Shallum began to regret his opposition to Abu Bakr.
In 633CE, after helping helped to reclaim Al-Bahrein, Shallum traveled with Al-Muthanna along the Persian Gulf to reduced Al-Katif, and carried his victorious arms into the delta of the Euphrates. Al-Muthanna was of the Bekr tribe which lived in that area. Al-Muthanna's column swelled to 8000 men. But Abu Bakr, anticipating opposition, sent his general Khalid was to subdue Chaldea. When Al-Muthanna was overwhelmed by Persian troops by the by the Great Canal (a branch of the Tigris which runs across the Peninsula), Khalid, joined him and routed the enemy. Khalid scoured the country, killing all the men fit for war and taking their women captive.
But the Jewish peasants he left unharmed. Shallum was chosen to send tidings of the victory of the Battle of Ulleis to Abu Bakr, afterwards he returned to the field of battle. By "conquering sixty places", Shallum's became reconciled to Abu Bakr, and was received in favor. The Arab kingdom Hira was besieged and capitulated to Khalid, while Persia was paralyzed by internal troubles. Siege was laid to Al-Anbar, a fortress on the Euphrates some eighty miles above Babylon. The army attacked 'Ain at-Tamr, the Spring of the Date palm, a fortress on the desert border three days' journey farther west. The Persian troops were here supported by a great gathering of soldiers, and among them the same Jewish Taghlib which had followed the prophetess Hefzibah (Sajah) to Al-Yemama. They met Khalid as he approached, but were repulsed. The Persian governor seeing the route from the ramparts, fled and left the fugitives to defend themselves as best they could. Khalid beheaded their leaders in front of the city walls, and every adult male of the garrison led forth and put to death; while the women and children were made over to the soldiers or sold into slavery.
In 634 CE, Abu Bakr passed away, but before his death 'Umar was nominated to be the next Khalif. For Khalid's many acts of cruelty, 'Umar recalled him to Arabia. Shallum was placed in command of the troops.

216 In a Jewish academy nearby, forty students joined the invading forces. Amongst them were progenitors of several distinguished men, such as Ibn Ishak the historian, and Musa the conqueror of Spain. Shallum, the brother of an Exilarch betrayed by the Persians, rose up to overthrow the Sassanian Dynasty. He commanded a zealous army of Kharajites and trained them to achieve two aims: Get the Paradise of the Earth (Iran) or die for the paradise of heaven. Shallum using his accumulated knowledge, wisdom, and culture, adapted the teachings of the Prophet into a universal religion that included Jews and Persians.

217 He supported the Jewish academies in Pumbedita and Sura. He translated the Qur'an into Persian, something that until now had been strictly limited to Arabic. In 637 CE, Shallum, defeated the Persian army of 20,000 soldiers in the battle of Qadisiya. He went on to capture the Persian capital Ctesiphon and occupy all of Iraq. Shallum established his capital in Mahoza, the ancient seat of the Exilarch. By this time he had two children Heman (Abdullah ibn Saba) and Yaakov ('Ka'b al-Ahbar). Heman he sent to the 'Umar's court and Yaakov was sent to the Yeshiva in Pumbedita to undergo rabbinical training. Two and half years, Shallum died and was buried in Mahoza. The city is now called Salman Pak, in honor of Shallum.
After his death, his zealous followers misused the opportunity and put the country under military rule. The Zoroastrians reported that they burned their libraries and books. They destroyed castles and forced their followers to believe nothing but Islam. No one was allowed to say: this is my land and I am an Iranian in my country, but one only could say: I am a Moslem, and I am a servant to my Arab masters. Shallum (Salman Farsi) was recognized by Arabs and Jews as a hero, his name even appears in the Qur'an, while to Iranians Salman Farsi was a traitor.

<b>Conquest and Victory at Jerusalem</b>
'Umar decided to return to the aborted conquest of Israel. What was originally a mission of mercy became a mission of conquest. The Muslim army was in three divisions of 5000 men each, the commanders being 'Amr ibn al-'As, Shurahbil ibn Hasana, and Yezid. To each of these divisions one of the districts of Syria-Palestine was assigned as its field of operations. 'Amr and his Jewish troops were to make for Ayla, at the head of the Gulf of Aqaba, and thence invade southern Syria or Israel. Shurahbil and his Sadducean troops were to make first for Tebuk, whence the latter was to invade central Syria, while Yezid and his formerly Christian troops pushed on towards Damascus. Mu'awiya, the future Khalif, bore the standard of his brother Yezid. Hebron (with its tombs of the Jewish patriarchs) fell to 'Amr, but a greater battle awaited.
In 635, Battle of Yarmuk occurred. Convinced that the Rome was at war with the Jews, Emperor Heraclius decreed forced baptism on North African Jewish communities. Heraclius started organizing an international force
218 , as many as 70,000 troops. The Muslims reached Damascus,
but were forced to withdraw to Yarmuk. Heraclius ordered that his troops were to persue the Muslims, stipulating that they were not to engage them in war, but rather to keep on the alert until he could assemble his other troops and send them to help. Now the Byzantines reached the Jordan and crossed into Arabia [trans-Jordan]. Leaving their campsite on the riverbank, the Byzantines went on foot to attack the Muslims' camp. The Muslims, however, had placed