Continued from 141:
Then these sections follow:
EXPANSION, EXPLOITATION, AND EXTERMINATION
THE PENETRATION OF NORTH AMERICA
THE EUROPEAN STRUGGLE FOR HEGEMONY
<!--QuoteBegin-->QUOTE<!--QuoteEBegin-->TRAGEDY: THE UNITED STATES IS CREATED
With the dominance of British power on a world scale, the European struggle for hegemony in the Americas was nearing its end. Subsequently, the 18th and 19th centuries were to be a period of wars for independence that would force the European states out of the Americas. Foremost among these wars was the independence struggle that would lead to the birth of the United States.
[...]
That the British colonial forces did not lose more territory can be attributed much to the participation of numerous First Nations on the side of the British; the Royal Proclamation was thus a strategy to dampen Native resistance to British colonialism (as in the eruption of King George's War in 1744 when Micmacs allied themselves with the French and, following the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748, continued fighting the British, who then concluded a treaty of "Peace and Friendship" with the Micmacs), as well as a method of forming military alliances with First Nations, if not at least their neutrality in European conflicts.
<b>As in previous European struggles, Indigenous peoples were used as expendable troops, and the extensive militarization further consolidated settler control,</b>
[...]
<b>The `Indian Wars' launched by the US continued for the next 100 years, following an exterminationist policy that was aimed at destroying Native nations</b> and securing those remnants who survived in (what was then believed) barren and desolate reserves. Once the People were contained in these <i>Bantustans,</i> the next step was the destruction of Native culture under the auspices of then-emerging governmental agencies.
As the US moved to a higher level of war against First Nations, it also began moving against competing European powers still present in the Americas.
In 1812, using the pretext of Native raids along its northern frontier from British territories, US forces attempted to invade British North America. <b>Here again, Britain's colonial policies proved effective; an alliance of Native nations (who had their own interests in full implementation of the 1763 Proclamation) and European settlers succeeded in repulsing the US expansion.</b> Among those who fought against the US invasion were the Native leaders Tecumseh -- a Shawnee chief who worked to form a Native confederacy against the Europeans (and who argued that no one individual or grouping could sell the lands, as it belonged to all the Native peoples); Black Hawk -- a leader of the Sauk who would also lead future Native insurgencies; and <b>Joseph Brant -- a leader in the Haudenosaunee who was rewarded with a large territory by the British and promptly began selling off partitions to European settlers (in history, he is regarded as a "hero" by Euro-Americans but a traitor by his people).</b> Tecumseh was killed in battle in the Battle of Moraviantown in Ontario in 1813.
In 1815, hostilities between Britain and the US were formally ended in the Treaty of Ghent, though neither the US war on Natives, or Native resistance, subsided.<!--QuoteEnd--><!--QuoteEEnd-->
Now come many sections that I've not had time to read in detail, but I've looked through it and it takes one's breath:
<!--QuoteBegin-->QUOTE<!--QuoteEBegin-->REVOLUTIONS IN THE 'NEW WORLD'
Following the American Revolution, movements for independence began breaking out in <b>South and Central America</b>.
<b>Despite the seemingly monolithic appearance of Spanish or Portuguese colonialism in the first three centuries following the European invasion, and despite the genocidal policies of the conquistadors, Native resistance continued.</b> Particularly in, for example, the interior region of the Yucatan Peninsula, the lowland forests of Peru, the Amazon region, and even in the Andean highlands -- which had suffered such a severe depopulation; between 1532 and 1625, the population of the Andean peoples is estimated to have declined from 9 million to 700,000. <b>In these regions, colonial domination was continually challenged and formed the base for resistance movements that began even in the 1500s.</b>
Among the first of these revolts was the Vilacabamba rebellion of 1536 led by Manqu Inka. Although the insurgency was unable to expand and failed to drive the Spanish out, the rebels were able to establish a "liberated zone" in the Vilacabamba region of present-day Bolivia for the next three decades [16]. The ending of the initial revolt is recognized as the execution of another leader, Tupac Amaru I in 1572.
Other major insurgencies also broke out in Ecuador in 1578, 1599, and 1615. The Itza of Tayasal in the Yucatan Peninsula remained unsubjugated until 1697.
<!--QuoteBegin--><div class='quotetop'>QUOTE<!--QuoteEBegin-->"Europeans found it particularly difficult to establish effective transportation and communication facilities in the forest lowlands of the Maya area... Though the Spaniards achieved formal sovereignty over Yucatan with relative ease, many local Maya groups successfully resisted effective domination...for centuries" [17].<!--QuoteEnd--><!--QuoteEEnd-->
<!--QuoteEnd--></div><!--QuoteEEnd-->It goes on and on. The title of this article is very apt. My goodness, the Native Americans have been fighting and fighting without giving up. The US keeps presenting them as people who've just rolled over and died. But no, that's a big sham. And these people are still fighting today. Win. Win.
<!--QuoteBegin-->QUOTE<!--QuoteEBegin-->MANIFEST DESTINY AND THE US 'INDIAN WARS'
While the US was in the process of establishing itself as an imperialist world power, it was still struggling to consolidate itself as a continental base and countering armed resistance by First Nations.
[...]
But the `Indian Frontier' was not to hold. Like the British Royal Proclamation of 1763, the restrictions on Europeans settling or trading in these regions were routinely ignored. With the US annexation of northern Mexico in 1848, the US acquired the territories of Texas, California, New Mexico, Arizona, Utah and Colorado. The same year, gold was discovered in California. With these two events, the large-scale invasion of the `Indian Territory' was underway. <b>Under the ideology of Manifest Destiny, the US was to launch a renewed period of genocidal war against those regions and First Nations which remained unsubjugated.</b> The theatre of war extended from the Great Lakes region around Minnesota, south of the Rio Grande, and west to California, extending north to Washington state. It was a period of war which involved many First Nations<!--QuoteEnd--><!--QuoteEEnd-->Then there's the section:
AFRIKAN SLAVERY, AFRIKAN REBELLION, AND THE US CIVIL WAR
followed by:
<!--QuoteBegin-->QUOTE<!--QuoteEBegin-->BLACK RECONSTRUCTION AND DECONSTRUCTION
[...]
Towards the end of the War in 1865, <b>those Afrikans who did not escape began a large-scale strike following the defeat of the Confederacy. They claimed the lands that they had laboured on, and began arming themselves -- not only against the Southern planters but also against the Union army. Widespread concerns about this `dangerous position' of Afrikans in the South led to `Black Reconstruction'; Afrikans were promised "democracy, human rights, self-government and popular ownership of the land".</b>
In reality, it was a strategy for returning Euro-American dominance involving:
"1. The military repression of the most organized and militant Afrikan communities.
2. <b>Pacifying the Afrikan peoples by neo-colonialism</b>, using elements of the Afrikan petit-bourgeoisie to <b>led their people into embracing US citizenship as the answer to all problems</b>. Instead of nationhood and liberation, the neo-colonial agents told the masses that their democratic demands could be met by following the Northern settler capitalists..." [27].
<b>Following this strategy, Union army forces attacked Afrikan communities who were occupying land, forcing tens of thousands off collectively held land and arresting the "leaders". Afrikan troops who had fought in the Union army were quickly disarmed and dispersed, or sent to fight as colonial troops in the ongoing "Indian Wars".</b> White supremacist terrorist organizations formed, one of the most infamous -- but not the only -- being the Ku Klux Klan.<!--QuoteEnd--><!--QuoteEEnd-->Wow. I never knew about this.
*Very* interesting topics from the brief look over.
Then these sections follow:
EXPANSION, EXPLOITATION, AND EXTERMINATION
THE PENETRATION OF NORTH AMERICA
THE EUROPEAN STRUGGLE FOR HEGEMONY
<!--QuoteBegin-->QUOTE<!--QuoteEBegin-->TRAGEDY: THE UNITED STATES IS CREATED
With the dominance of British power on a world scale, the European struggle for hegemony in the Americas was nearing its end. Subsequently, the 18th and 19th centuries were to be a period of wars for independence that would force the European states out of the Americas. Foremost among these wars was the independence struggle that would lead to the birth of the United States.
[...]
That the British colonial forces did not lose more territory can be attributed much to the participation of numerous First Nations on the side of the British; the Royal Proclamation was thus a strategy to dampen Native resistance to British colonialism (as in the eruption of King George's War in 1744 when Micmacs allied themselves with the French and, following the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748, continued fighting the British, who then concluded a treaty of "Peace and Friendship" with the Micmacs), as well as a method of forming military alliances with First Nations, if not at least their neutrality in European conflicts.
<b>As in previous European struggles, Indigenous peoples were used as expendable troops, and the extensive militarization further consolidated settler control,</b>
[...]
<b>The `Indian Wars' launched by the US continued for the next 100 years, following an exterminationist policy that was aimed at destroying Native nations</b> and securing those remnants who survived in (what was then believed) barren and desolate reserves. Once the People were contained in these <i>Bantustans,</i> the next step was the destruction of Native culture under the auspices of then-emerging governmental agencies.
As the US moved to a higher level of war against First Nations, it also began moving against competing European powers still present in the Americas.
In 1812, using the pretext of Native raids along its northern frontier from British territories, US forces attempted to invade British North America. <b>Here again, Britain's colonial policies proved effective; an alliance of Native nations (who had their own interests in full implementation of the 1763 Proclamation) and European settlers succeeded in repulsing the US expansion.</b> Among those who fought against the US invasion were the Native leaders Tecumseh -- a Shawnee chief who worked to form a Native confederacy against the Europeans (and who argued that no one individual or grouping could sell the lands, as it belonged to all the Native peoples); Black Hawk -- a leader of the Sauk who would also lead future Native insurgencies; and <b>Joseph Brant -- a leader in the Haudenosaunee who was rewarded with a large territory by the British and promptly began selling off partitions to European settlers (in history, he is regarded as a "hero" by Euro-Americans but a traitor by his people).</b> Tecumseh was killed in battle in the Battle of Moraviantown in Ontario in 1813.
In 1815, hostilities between Britain and the US were formally ended in the Treaty of Ghent, though neither the US war on Natives, or Native resistance, subsided.<!--QuoteEnd--><!--QuoteEEnd-->
Now come many sections that I've not had time to read in detail, but I've looked through it and it takes one's breath:
<!--QuoteBegin-->QUOTE<!--QuoteEBegin-->REVOLUTIONS IN THE 'NEW WORLD'
Following the American Revolution, movements for independence began breaking out in <b>South and Central America</b>.
<b>Despite the seemingly monolithic appearance of Spanish or Portuguese colonialism in the first three centuries following the European invasion, and despite the genocidal policies of the conquistadors, Native resistance continued.</b> Particularly in, for example, the interior region of the Yucatan Peninsula, the lowland forests of Peru, the Amazon region, and even in the Andean highlands -- which had suffered such a severe depopulation; between 1532 and 1625, the population of the Andean peoples is estimated to have declined from 9 million to 700,000. <b>In these regions, colonial domination was continually challenged and formed the base for resistance movements that began even in the 1500s.</b>
Among the first of these revolts was the Vilacabamba rebellion of 1536 led by Manqu Inka. Although the insurgency was unable to expand and failed to drive the Spanish out, the rebels were able to establish a "liberated zone" in the Vilacabamba region of present-day Bolivia for the next three decades [16]. The ending of the initial revolt is recognized as the execution of another leader, Tupac Amaru I in 1572.
Other major insurgencies also broke out in Ecuador in 1578, 1599, and 1615. The Itza of Tayasal in the Yucatan Peninsula remained unsubjugated until 1697.
<!--QuoteBegin--><div class='quotetop'>QUOTE<!--QuoteEBegin-->"Europeans found it particularly difficult to establish effective transportation and communication facilities in the forest lowlands of the Maya area... Though the Spaniards achieved formal sovereignty over Yucatan with relative ease, many local Maya groups successfully resisted effective domination...for centuries" [17].<!--QuoteEnd--><!--QuoteEEnd-->
<!--QuoteEnd--></div><!--QuoteEEnd-->It goes on and on. The title of this article is very apt. My goodness, the Native Americans have been fighting and fighting without giving up. The US keeps presenting them as people who've just rolled over and died. But no, that's a big sham. And these people are still fighting today. Win. Win.
<!--QuoteBegin-->QUOTE<!--QuoteEBegin-->MANIFEST DESTINY AND THE US 'INDIAN WARS'
While the US was in the process of establishing itself as an imperialist world power, it was still struggling to consolidate itself as a continental base and countering armed resistance by First Nations.
[...]
But the `Indian Frontier' was not to hold. Like the British Royal Proclamation of 1763, the restrictions on Europeans settling or trading in these regions were routinely ignored. With the US annexation of northern Mexico in 1848, the US acquired the territories of Texas, California, New Mexico, Arizona, Utah and Colorado. The same year, gold was discovered in California. With these two events, the large-scale invasion of the `Indian Territory' was underway. <b>Under the ideology of Manifest Destiny, the US was to launch a renewed period of genocidal war against those regions and First Nations which remained unsubjugated.</b> The theatre of war extended from the Great Lakes region around Minnesota, south of the Rio Grande, and west to California, extending north to Washington state. It was a period of war which involved many First Nations<!--QuoteEnd--><!--QuoteEEnd-->Then there's the section:
AFRIKAN SLAVERY, AFRIKAN REBELLION, AND THE US CIVIL WAR
followed by:
<!--QuoteBegin-->QUOTE<!--QuoteEBegin-->BLACK RECONSTRUCTION AND DECONSTRUCTION
[...]
Towards the end of the War in 1865, <b>those Afrikans who did not escape began a large-scale strike following the defeat of the Confederacy. They claimed the lands that they had laboured on, and began arming themselves -- not only against the Southern planters but also against the Union army. Widespread concerns about this `dangerous position' of Afrikans in the South led to `Black Reconstruction'; Afrikans were promised "democracy, human rights, self-government and popular ownership of the land".</b>
In reality, it was a strategy for returning Euro-American dominance involving:
"1. The military repression of the most organized and militant Afrikan communities.
2. <b>Pacifying the Afrikan peoples by neo-colonialism</b>, using elements of the Afrikan petit-bourgeoisie to <b>led their people into embracing US citizenship as the answer to all problems</b>. Instead of nationhood and liberation, the neo-colonial agents told the masses that their democratic demands could be met by following the Northern settler capitalists..." [27].
<b>Following this strategy, Union army forces attacked Afrikan communities who were occupying land, forcing tens of thousands off collectively held land and arresting the "leaders". Afrikan troops who had fought in the Union army were quickly disarmed and dispersed, or sent to fight as colonial troops in the ongoing "Indian Wars".</b> White supremacist terrorist organizations formed, one of the most infamous -- but not the only -- being the Ku Klux Klan.<!--QuoteEnd--><!--QuoteEEnd-->Wow. I never knew about this.
*Very* interesting topics from the brief look over.