12-05-2008, 07:09 AM
<!--QuoteBegin-->QUOTE<!--QuoteEBegin-->Wrestling
The word malla or jatti frequently occurs in literature and inscriptions, which indicates that wrestling was popular with the royalty as well as the masses. The kings glorified themselves with titles like ahavamalla (warrior-wrestler) and tribhuvanamalla (wrestler of three worlds). The term malla, in course of time, came to indicate strength (Fig. 171). The Akhyanakamanikosa refers to fighting with fists (mushti-yuddha) (Fig.172) and to wrestling as malla-yuddha [3]. Mallakalaga or jattikalaga is the term used for combat of wrestlers (Fig. 173). In the Kathasaritsagara, there is reference to a wrestler from the Deccan who defeated all the local wrestlers in a contest held at Varanasi on the occasion of a religious festival or devayatra [4]. Wrestling bouts formed part of everyday life of the people and sculptures provide ample illustrations. In a school of wrestling, youngsters were taught the technique of various grips (Fig. 174). There were women wrestlers (Fig. 175) who must have provided much entertainment to male audiences. There were professional wrestlers who gave performances before nobles and officials and earned a living (Fig. 176).
Three categories of wrestlers - jyeshthaka, antarjyeshthaka and govala - are mentioned [5]. These roughly resemble heavy, middle and bantam weight wrestlers of the present times. The Kannada poet Janna, who appears to have been a good sportsman, refers to jattis, govalas and jagajettis (world-wrestlers) getting ready for a fight [6]. According to their skill, efficiency and stamina, they were classified into ten groups. Up to twenty years of age, a wrestler was called bhavishnu and up to thirty years, he was known as prarudha. After thirty years, he was considered unfit for wrestling. Wrestlers known for powerful and tall build (mahakaya and mahaprana) were given maintenance allowance by the state. Bhavishnu and prarudha wrestlers were fed on a special diet comprising black gram, meat, curd and flour mixed with milk and clarified butter. The wrestlers, especially the bhavishnus, were forbidden from visiting women. They were to practice different exercises to build their bodies. Known as samasthanas, sthanakas and vijnanas, these consisted of various postures and grips (Fig. 177) and were practiced early in the morning. Bharashrama or weight-lifting (Fig. 178) was recommended along with long walk of one krosa (three miles) a day. They practiced swimming as well. In the evening, the wrestlers practiced bahupellanaka-srama or the exercise of lifting and clasping hands with a firm grip (Fig. 179). It is interesting to find that they practiced mallakhamb or pillar exercise called sthambhasrama. There was a supervisor over these wrestlers known as malladhyaksha [7].
According to the Manasollasa, there was a type of wrestling, for which the king personally selected wrestlers from among equals (Fig. 180) and heard them taking oath after saluting. The wrestling bouts took place in specially constructed arenas called akkhadakas (modern akhadas). They wore short and tight breeches (challana) or tight loin-cloth (dridhakachha) with their hair tied. After saluting the king and worshipping the idol of Sri Krishna which was installed beside the arena, the wrestlers started fighting. Various grips and clasps were tried. In the end, the one who did not tire out and who was able to break one of the limbs of his opponent, was declared the champion [8]. Poet Pampa refers to one such mallakalaga, witnessed by king Virata, in which the wrestler sent by Duryodhana kills all the famous wrestlers of Virata [9]. This type of wrestling, which was violent, subsequently went out of vogue.
These state-patronized wrestlers seem to have attended to other duties also. The priest Sribhuti, who was found guilty of breach of trust, was given choice of three punishments by the king, one of which was to receive thirty-three blows administered by powerful wrestlers [10].
Duelling
Anka (dueling) has been widely prevalent throughout the world, through the ages. Duels were fought with fists (boxing) and also with different weapons. The Agni Purana testified to state control over duels and gambling, with five per cent of the fine to be received by the king [11]. The Manasollasa confirms strict state control over dueling [12]. Ankakalaga or duel was fought between men for specific reasons [13]. The king was advised to discourage such combats and to allow them only in exceptional cases [14]. This is in sharp contrast to gladiators who were sacrificed to provide a Roman holiday.
The reasons for single combats were rivalry for women (paribhuta), greed or jealousy (matsara), land (bhumi), exhibition of prowess (vidya), revenge (vaira) and penitence for crime, redeemed by death (prayaschitta). Strange was birudanka or the challenge thrown by a swaggering desperado who rode a buffalo carrying a torch in broad daylight [15].
The ways for challenging to a duel are noteworthy. Some heaped abuses, others beat their opponents or cut their hair or otherwise incited them to demand satisfaction. Marco Polo gives a description of throwing a challenge in the Southern region, 'If it is an object with any man to affront another in the grossest and most contemptuous manner, he spits the juice of his masticated leaf on his face. Thus insulted, the injured party hastens to the presence of the king, states the circumstances of his grievance and declares his willingness to decide the quarrel by combat. The king thereupon furnishes them with arms, consisting of a sword and small shield; and all the people assemble to be spectators of the conflict, which lasts till one of them remains dead on the field [16].
The combatants took oath and the fight commenced on the following day. The king attended the arena with his retinue. The blowing of trumpet (kahala) was a special feature of the occasion. The rivals came dressed in gorgeous colors like green, yellow and black with belts of yellow metal and wore necklaces of conches. They paid homage to the king, sitting in the position of a tortoise and after getting the signal, started the fight. The winner was rewarded with dress, gold and ornaments, life pension (jivitam vrittim) and villages. Relatives of the deceased were also protected and helped by monetary grants. Since this was a fight engendered by personal hostility of private parties, no stigma was attached to the king, who merely permitted and supervised the combat (papam napnoti tesham) [17].
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The word malla or jatti frequently occurs in literature and inscriptions, which indicates that wrestling was popular with the royalty as well as the masses. The kings glorified themselves with titles like ahavamalla (warrior-wrestler) and tribhuvanamalla (wrestler of three worlds). The term malla, in course of time, came to indicate strength (Fig. 171). The Akhyanakamanikosa refers to fighting with fists (mushti-yuddha) (Fig.172) and to wrestling as malla-yuddha [3]. Mallakalaga or jattikalaga is the term used for combat of wrestlers (Fig. 173). In the Kathasaritsagara, there is reference to a wrestler from the Deccan who defeated all the local wrestlers in a contest held at Varanasi on the occasion of a religious festival or devayatra [4]. Wrestling bouts formed part of everyday life of the people and sculptures provide ample illustrations. In a school of wrestling, youngsters were taught the technique of various grips (Fig. 174). There were women wrestlers (Fig. 175) who must have provided much entertainment to male audiences. There were professional wrestlers who gave performances before nobles and officials and earned a living (Fig. 176).
Three categories of wrestlers - jyeshthaka, antarjyeshthaka and govala - are mentioned [5]. These roughly resemble heavy, middle and bantam weight wrestlers of the present times. The Kannada poet Janna, who appears to have been a good sportsman, refers to jattis, govalas and jagajettis (world-wrestlers) getting ready for a fight [6]. According to their skill, efficiency and stamina, they were classified into ten groups. Up to twenty years of age, a wrestler was called bhavishnu and up to thirty years, he was known as prarudha. After thirty years, he was considered unfit for wrestling. Wrestlers known for powerful and tall build (mahakaya and mahaprana) were given maintenance allowance by the state. Bhavishnu and prarudha wrestlers were fed on a special diet comprising black gram, meat, curd and flour mixed with milk and clarified butter. The wrestlers, especially the bhavishnus, were forbidden from visiting women. They were to practice different exercises to build their bodies. Known as samasthanas, sthanakas and vijnanas, these consisted of various postures and grips (Fig. 177) and were practiced early in the morning. Bharashrama or weight-lifting (Fig. 178) was recommended along with long walk of one krosa (three miles) a day. They practiced swimming as well. In the evening, the wrestlers practiced bahupellanaka-srama or the exercise of lifting and clasping hands with a firm grip (Fig. 179). It is interesting to find that they practiced mallakhamb or pillar exercise called sthambhasrama. There was a supervisor over these wrestlers known as malladhyaksha [7].
According to the Manasollasa, there was a type of wrestling, for which the king personally selected wrestlers from among equals (Fig. 180) and heard them taking oath after saluting. The wrestling bouts took place in specially constructed arenas called akkhadakas (modern akhadas). They wore short and tight breeches (challana) or tight loin-cloth (dridhakachha) with their hair tied. After saluting the king and worshipping the idol of Sri Krishna which was installed beside the arena, the wrestlers started fighting. Various grips and clasps were tried. In the end, the one who did not tire out and who was able to break one of the limbs of his opponent, was declared the champion [8]. Poet Pampa refers to one such mallakalaga, witnessed by king Virata, in which the wrestler sent by Duryodhana kills all the famous wrestlers of Virata [9]. This type of wrestling, which was violent, subsequently went out of vogue.
These state-patronized wrestlers seem to have attended to other duties also. The priest Sribhuti, who was found guilty of breach of trust, was given choice of three punishments by the king, one of which was to receive thirty-three blows administered by powerful wrestlers [10].
Duelling
Anka (dueling) has been widely prevalent throughout the world, through the ages. Duels were fought with fists (boxing) and also with different weapons. The Agni Purana testified to state control over duels and gambling, with five per cent of the fine to be received by the king [11]. The Manasollasa confirms strict state control over dueling [12]. Ankakalaga or duel was fought between men for specific reasons [13]. The king was advised to discourage such combats and to allow them only in exceptional cases [14]. This is in sharp contrast to gladiators who were sacrificed to provide a Roman holiday.
The reasons for single combats were rivalry for women (paribhuta), greed or jealousy (matsara), land (bhumi), exhibition of prowess (vidya), revenge (vaira) and penitence for crime, redeemed by death (prayaschitta). Strange was birudanka or the challenge thrown by a swaggering desperado who rode a buffalo carrying a torch in broad daylight [15].
The ways for challenging to a duel are noteworthy. Some heaped abuses, others beat their opponents or cut their hair or otherwise incited them to demand satisfaction. Marco Polo gives a description of throwing a challenge in the Southern region, 'If it is an object with any man to affront another in the grossest and most contemptuous manner, he spits the juice of his masticated leaf on his face. Thus insulted, the injured party hastens to the presence of the king, states the circumstances of his grievance and declares his willingness to decide the quarrel by combat. The king thereupon furnishes them with arms, consisting of a sword and small shield; and all the people assemble to be spectators of the conflict, which lasts till one of them remains dead on the field [16].
The combatants took oath and the fight commenced on the following day. The king attended the arena with his retinue. The blowing of trumpet (kahala) was a special feature of the occasion. The rivals came dressed in gorgeous colors like green, yellow and black with belts of yellow metal and wore necklaces of conches. They paid homage to the king, sitting in the position of a tortoise and after getting the signal, started the fight. The winner was rewarded with dress, gold and ornaments, life pension (jivitam vrittim) and villages. Relatives of the deceased were also protected and helped by monetary grants. Since this was a fight engendered by personal hostility of private parties, no stigma was attached to the king, who merely permitted and supervised the combat (papam napnoti tesham) [17].
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