07-26-2010, 01:44 PM
(partly the same as in the history thread, medieval period)Some lost styles or schools of Indian architecture. This is based upon treatises like the SamarAngana SUtradhAra, AparAjitaprccha, Shilparatna, etc.
Indian architecture involves VAstu (architecture), Shilpa (sculpture and Chitra (painting). The Sthapati was not only an architect-mason, but also an engineer and townplanner. Around him were several guilds or Shrenis of other Sthapatis, SUtragrAhins, TakSHakas and Vardhakins.
VAstushAstra is more than only temple architecture. It involves:
1. city, town, village and fort architecture (suburbs were called ShAkhA-nagara, dealing with metropoli)
2. civil and public art and architecture (Veshma and SabhA)
3. palace art and architecture (RAjaveshma: rich and with royals had their NivAsa = residence and VilAsa = pleasure mansions)
4. temple art and architecture (PrAsAda)
And each had its distinct and overlapping and also regional styles. Where are those mansions, not only the varied temples, but also the palatial ones? How come that everything of the middle ages and later is Muslim or branded as such?
According to the VAstushAstras till around the rule of the Delhi Sultans, there were many schools and regional styles of architecture attached to different topics.
In temple architecture, we learn from the standard works that we have principally a Nagara, Dravida and a mixed style, called Vesara. But there were many more:
1. DrAviDa (Deccan and S.India)
2. Latina (or LATa)
3. VAvAta (or VArATa, Berar)
4. SAndhAra
5. BhUmija (BhUmihAra, Purab)
6. Mishra (mixed)
7. ValabhI (Gujarat)
8. Napumsaka
9. SimhAvalokana
10. DAruja
11. NAgara (N.Indian)
12. There is also a VairATa style (Alwar) of temple construction.
13. Besides some variants of specific VimAna schools
The principle styles of Palace architecture:
1. PAncAlI (Antarvedi area of Ganga-Yamuna doab)
2. MAgadhI (Bihar)
3. VAngI (Bengal)
4. KAlingI(Orissa)
5. ShaurasenI (areas of old Hindi, old Rajasthani, old Gujarati and Old Panjabi/Haryanvi)
6. DrAviDI (Deccan and south).
The word ShaurasenI especially here denotes that we are in an intermediate stage, from the older Apabhramshas period (second half 1st millennium C.E.) evolving in the middle Dingala periode (roughly till 12th-13th century) already gives regional variants evolving in initiatial stages of Old Panjabi, Old Hindi (Braja BhASHa), Old Rajasthani and old Gujarati. The classical Pingala period, roughly after this period, leads to the mature stages of the language of SuradAsa, TulasIdAsa etc.
The styles above give ample evidence of lost or ignored palace construction styles which must be looked for in the later invented styles of Pathan and Mughal architecture. Pathans (Fergusson actually takes up here the Delhi Sultans and their off shoots in the east, west and south) were conquerors, they lacked Sthapatis and chief masons, and with every kind of rebellious actions within their realms, there was hardly enough time for them consolidate their power outside Delhi and a thin surrounding area and thus to have stability and peace in governing the raided provinces.
Both temples and palaces (and mansions of wealthy people, merchants and nobility) could have overlapping styles. The PanchAyatana construction can be seen in Khajurahu, the palatial ones are Humayun's rauza and the Taj Mahal.
Mansions can have (n)one to many domes or Chhatris. In that case we have Ekaratna, Triratna and Pancaratna. Pancaratna was already recognized by Babur as a Hindustani style.
With reference to the dome styles, we have the following different styles:
1. Kaurava (Haryana)
2. PancAla (central doab)
3. Vaideha (N.Bihar)
3. MAgadha (S.Bihar),
4. Kaushala (E.UP)
5. KAlinga (Orissa)
6. KAshya (Banaras)
7. VArATa (Berar)
8. Kaulaka (?),
9. ShaNDila (close to Kannauj?)
10. Shaurasena (Rajasthan-Gujarat-Mathura-Agra)
11. GAndhAra NW)
12. Avantika (Malwa)
13. KAshmIra
14. GAngeya (Bengal?).
The domes, also called StUpI and smaller dommes are called stUpikA (derived from the stupa shape: semicircular), Other words for a dome are ShikhA and ANDa, it is especially the last which is a word for a bulbous shape.
A stupika is a small votive stupa. It is often accompanied by small votive tablets with Buddhist formulae, or small Buddhist images.[1] The stupika can also be the topmost part of a building, particularly a Hindu temple.^ Miksic, John N. (2003). Earthenware in Southeast Asia. NUS Press. pp. 289. ISBN 9789971692711. http://books.google.com/books?id=gxM0k5lGupAC&pg=PT289. Retrieved 2009-08-16.
^ Snodgrass, Adrian (1985). The Symbolism of the Stupa. SEAP Publications. pp. 263. ISBN 9780877277002. http://books.google.com/books?id=o0aQMlFX8ugC&pg=PA263. Retrieved 2009-08-16.
aNDakaM sArddha-bhAgena candrikArddha-padA smrtA |
AkAshalingaMkurvita dvi-padaM sumanoharaM || SamarAngNna-SUtradhAra 57-78The "Ãâ¬kÃÂà âºaliá¹â¦ga" Finial M. A. Dhaky
Artibus Asiae, Vol. 36, No. 4 (1974), pp. 307-315
As the main element the aNDaka (Amalaka or myrobalan), a bulbous cogged wheel shape.
CandrikA = padmapatrI or lotuscap
Bulbous variety or onionshaped variant of Amalaka/stupI is found in the TripuruShaprAsAda (representing the TrimUrti) the Lara Djanggarang complex in Prambanan, Java in Indonesia of Hindu temples (ca. mid 9th century)
Actually and Amalaka=Indian gooseberryt, emblic myrobalan has a bulbous shape. In the ancient texts it is called ANDa, which also has a bulbous shape.
MaNDapas were of different shapes, square(caturashra), round (vrttanta), but also octagonal (ashtashra), etc. The same shapes for supporting pillars, pillars/towers in walls (bhitt-stambhas) and monolithic pillars/towers (dhvajastambhas and mAnastambhas, DIpa- or dIpamAnastambhas).
Temples did have a monolithic tower/pillar, but the Digambaras already had their Samava-Sharanas with a Manastambha at each direction, giving four monolithic towers or pillars in front of the sacred Hall. Bauddha temples, especially in Gandhara before the Guptas may have had 4 monolithic towers topped with lions surrounding the Hall too, but then positioned like the Taj Mahal towers. At least their sculpture does show this in two miniature models. See: Gandhara, 2nd century CE, has 4 lion-crowned Stambhas surrounding the Stupa on a platform. http://upload.wikime...a2ndCentury.jpg
An stylistical miniature example: Model of a stupa (Buddhist shrine), ca. 4th century, Pakistan, ancient region of Gandhara, Bronze; H. 22 3/4 in. (57.8 cm), W. 7 1/2 in. (19.1 cm). Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Donald J. Bruckmann, 1985 (1985.387ab) Source of description: Model of a stupa (Buddhist shrine) [Pakistan, ancient region of Gandhara] (1985.387ab) | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History | The Metropolitan Museum of Art
Monolithic or Towers were a special feature of Bauddha, Jaina (especially the Manastambhas), Shaiva and Vaishnava temples: KIrtistambhas, Dhvajastambhas, DIpastambhas etc.
Minarets of Muslims have a very vague history. Actually Muslims made a difference bewteen a Manar = square Light House (kind of DIpastambha) and a place for the Muezzin, which could be from any high place, orginally from the roof of buildings. Round or Cylindrical towers were later applied from (east)Iran. Even Fergusson, but also Diez and many other scholars consider the round towers as adopted from Bauddha and Hindu from east-Iranian (especially Afghanistan) and Central-Asia.
A feature of a building containing 4 towers is actually copied by Timur from Delhi. He commissioned a mosque to be built in Samarkand based upon the one in Delhi. As he obviously lacked a Sthapati and chief masons within his groups of captured Indian artisans, and as the chief mason was a Muslim from outside India, his project produced a sorry result (compared to master pieces in India).
ShAstras like the MAnasAra clearly describe mansions with surrounding KarNa-harmyas or corner houselike towers. These towers in the corners are also called karNa-CUlikAs in the MAnaSara. These can be attached to the main mansion (temple or palace), but also detached, both giving a PancAyatana concept if it is a houselike tower. (Otherwise detached ones could technically be called KarNa-stambhas and can be the Manastambhas or KIrtistambhas or DIpastambhas).
Material used, could be wood, bricks and stones. Marble (sphatika = originally crystall quartz, but Monier-Williams gives prastaraa nd different kinds of prastara, pASHANa, shilA, upala for marble) was also known, at least the stonecutters and mines from Gujarat and Rajasthan were very famous. For construction two techniques were also used, which were Sudhashila (sudha = plaster) and Vajralepa (adamantine glue coating). When both were combined it was also called Vajralepa.
White radiance of temples through plaster was called SAttvika, red radiance was RAjasika and black was TAmasika. There was a white temple dedicated to Surya, according to the Mandasor inscription of 473 C.E. with the phrase "the temple resembling a mountain shines white", in line 16. (Indian Antiquary, vol. xv, p. 196)
The LakSHmaNa temple in Khajurahu was also white plastered 'like the peaks of the mountains of snow'. (inscription of 1011 C.E.)
The Garbhamana system of measuring divides the sacred plot or sanctum in nine divisions, called ASHTApAda or PAdASHTa.
garbhamAna-pramANena prAsAdaM shRNuta dvijAH |
vibhajya navadhA garbhaM madhye syAl-linga-pITHikA || (Matsya 269.15)
pAdASHTakaM tu ruciraM pArshvataH parikalpayet |
mAnena tena vistAro bhittInAM tu vidhIyate || (Matsya 269.16)
This Garbhamana method with the ASHTa-pAdas is the real origin at least from Gupta times of the much later word Hasht Bihisht (New Persian, post-Sasanian) used by modern writers for this concept in architecture, and wrongly ascribed by these to Persians and as a concept used by Mughals, but this last word Hasht Bihisht can be found nowhere in literature before Amir Khushro of India. And that too in a non-architecture use (denoting eight heavens).
Ashtapada in Garbhamana method, thus, denotes 8 Padas or squares surrounding a central one. Every Divine Pada has its own Vasu and VAstupuruSHa. All the 8 Padas represent 8x4 = 32 Devatas; the central 9th Heavenly Pada, the Brahmasthana is represented by the 33th Devata. That's why the Divine Ashta-pada of the Garbhamana method was rendered as the New Persian created word Hasht Bihisht. This Ashta-pada division was also known as Pitha-pada in the Vastushastras! This is clearly an Indian method and certainly not a Persian.
One MaNDapa using nine courts can be a the Ranga Mandapa or Ranga Mahal. Perhaps the ancient Palace of Vasantasena as described in the Mrcchakatikam with 8 great courts and a garden is also arranged as a grand ASHTapAda. But, I am not sure about this. Even though it is described in an ancient Sanskrit play, it must be based upon a real grand mansion complex of a wealthy person in Ujjain. An example of the old Malwa school of architecture.
Many types of laid-out gardens attached to mansions are described, collectively called KAnana. Famous are the Ujjayini gardens of the ancient Malwa school. Residential buildings or NivAsa bhavanas and pleasure pavilions or VilAsa bhavanas were placed in different types of KAnanas, with rows of different kinds of trees.
Many types of Yantras are described, especially the ones supplying waters being used for the gardens, fountains, etc.
City planning included different shapes, like square (caturashra), rectangular (Ayatana) like the Taj Mahal, round (vrttAnta), semicircular or bow-shaped (KArmuka, like an Arddha-Chandra) like the Agra Red Fort and Salimgarh above the Delhi Red Fort, etc.
According to one authority, a metropolis (Nagara) could have a capital city (RAjadhAnI), with a secondary city (PaTTana, actually predominantly a merchant's city) attached to it, all with their suburbas (ShAkha-Nagaras), including quarters for other merchants/traders, artisans, soldiers, etc.
As Agra seems to have another city on the eastern bank (based on the 16th century description of Pelsaert), jointly forming an ancient metropolis with the city on the western bank, it follows the description of the DroNa type of city of the ShAstras.
In short, Indian Vastu architecture is grossly misunderstood and described from a limited angle. And its value, coupled to indigenous and Rajput architecture and creativity before and during the Sultanate and Mughal period, is enormously underestimated, by giving its credits to the newly created and non-existent Pathan and Saracenic architecture (inventions of James Fergusson, a merchant having taken up a study on architecture) and overestimated Timurid and Mughal architecture, even though they have their own beauty. But if claims or credits for creation can discredited through primary sources, what then is Mughal architecture? The real credit in any way should be given rightly to Indian architects, masons, sculptors, carpenters, common labourers and their shastras and creative minds.
Indian architecture involves VAstu (architecture), Shilpa (sculpture and Chitra (painting). The Sthapati was not only an architect-mason, but also an engineer and townplanner. Around him were several guilds or Shrenis of other Sthapatis, SUtragrAhins, TakSHakas and Vardhakins.
VAstushAstra is more than only temple architecture. It involves:
1. city, town, village and fort architecture (suburbs were called ShAkhA-nagara, dealing with metropoli)
2. civil and public art and architecture (Veshma and SabhA)
3. palace art and architecture (RAjaveshma: rich and with royals had their NivAsa = residence and VilAsa = pleasure mansions)
4. temple art and architecture (PrAsAda)
And each had its distinct and overlapping and also regional styles. Where are those mansions, not only the varied temples, but also the palatial ones? How come that everything of the middle ages and later is Muslim or branded as such?
According to the VAstushAstras till around the rule of the Delhi Sultans, there were many schools and regional styles of architecture attached to different topics.
In temple architecture, we learn from the standard works that we have principally a Nagara, Dravida and a mixed style, called Vesara. But there were many more:
1. DrAviDa (Deccan and S.India)
2. Latina (or LATa)
3. VAvAta (or VArATa, Berar)
4. SAndhAra
5. BhUmija (BhUmihAra, Purab)
6. Mishra (mixed)
7. ValabhI (Gujarat)
8. Napumsaka
9. SimhAvalokana
10. DAruja
11. NAgara (N.Indian)
12. There is also a VairATa style (Alwar) of temple construction.
13. Besides some variants of specific VimAna schools
The principle styles of Palace architecture:
1. PAncAlI (Antarvedi area of Ganga-Yamuna doab)
2. MAgadhI (Bihar)
3. VAngI (Bengal)
4. KAlingI(Orissa)
5. ShaurasenI (areas of old Hindi, old Rajasthani, old Gujarati and Old Panjabi/Haryanvi)
6. DrAviDI (Deccan and south).
The word ShaurasenI especially here denotes that we are in an intermediate stage, from the older Apabhramshas period (second half 1st millennium C.E.) evolving in the middle Dingala periode (roughly till 12th-13th century) already gives regional variants evolving in initiatial stages of Old Panjabi, Old Hindi (Braja BhASHa), Old Rajasthani and old Gujarati. The classical Pingala period, roughly after this period, leads to the mature stages of the language of SuradAsa, TulasIdAsa etc.
The styles above give ample evidence of lost or ignored palace construction styles which must be looked for in the later invented styles of Pathan and Mughal architecture. Pathans (Fergusson actually takes up here the Delhi Sultans and their off shoots in the east, west and south) were conquerors, they lacked Sthapatis and chief masons, and with every kind of rebellious actions within their realms, there was hardly enough time for them consolidate their power outside Delhi and a thin surrounding area and thus to have stability and peace in governing the raided provinces.
Both temples and palaces (and mansions of wealthy people, merchants and nobility) could have overlapping styles. The PanchAyatana construction can be seen in Khajurahu, the palatial ones are Humayun's rauza and the Taj Mahal.
Mansions can have (n)one to many domes or Chhatris. In that case we have Ekaratna, Triratna and Pancaratna. Pancaratna was already recognized by Babur as a Hindustani style.
With reference to the dome styles, we have the following different styles:
1. Kaurava (Haryana)
2. PancAla (central doab)
3. Vaideha (N.Bihar)
3. MAgadha (S.Bihar),
4. Kaushala (E.UP)
5. KAlinga (Orissa)
6. KAshya (Banaras)
7. VArATa (Berar)
8. Kaulaka (?),
9. ShaNDila (close to Kannauj?)
10. Shaurasena (Rajasthan-Gujarat-Mathura-Agra)
11. GAndhAra NW)
12. Avantika (Malwa)
13. KAshmIra
14. GAngeya (Bengal?).
The domes, also called StUpI and smaller dommes are called stUpikA (derived from the stupa shape: semicircular), Other words for a dome are ShikhA and ANDa, it is especially the last which is a word for a bulbous shape.
A stupika is a small votive stupa. It is often accompanied by small votive tablets with Buddhist formulae, or small Buddhist images.[1] The stupika can also be the topmost part of a building, particularly a Hindu temple.^ Miksic, John N. (2003). Earthenware in Southeast Asia. NUS Press. pp. 289. ISBN 9789971692711. http://books.google.com/books?id=gxM0k5lGupAC&pg=PT289. Retrieved 2009-08-16.
^ Snodgrass, Adrian (1985). The Symbolism of the Stupa. SEAP Publications. pp. 263. ISBN 9780877277002. http://books.google.com/books?id=o0aQMlFX8ugC&pg=PA263. Retrieved 2009-08-16.
aNDakaM sArddha-bhAgena candrikArddha-padA smrtA |
AkAshalingaMkurvita dvi-padaM sumanoharaM || SamarAngNna-SUtradhAra 57-78The "Ãâ¬kÃÂà âºaliá¹â¦ga" Finial M. A. Dhaky
Artibus Asiae, Vol. 36, No. 4 (1974), pp. 307-315
As the main element the aNDaka (Amalaka or myrobalan), a bulbous cogged wheel shape.
CandrikA = padmapatrI or lotuscap
Bulbous variety or onionshaped variant of Amalaka/stupI is found in the TripuruShaprAsAda (representing the TrimUrti) the Lara Djanggarang complex in Prambanan, Java in Indonesia of Hindu temples (ca. mid 9th century)
Actually and Amalaka=Indian gooseberryt, emblic myrobalan has a bulbous shape. In the ancient texts it is called ANDa, which also has a bulbous shape.
MaNDapas were of different shapes, square(caturashra), round (vrttanta), but also octagonal (ashtashra), etc. The same shapes for supporting pillars, pillars/towers in walls (bhitt-stambhas) and monolithic pillars/towers (dhvajastambhas and mAnastambhas, DIpa- or dIpamAnastambhas).
Temples did have a monolithic tower/pillar, but the Digambaras already had their Samava-Sharanas with a Manastambha at each direction, giving four monolithic towers or pillars in front of the sacred Hall. Bauddha temples, especially in Gandhara before the Guptas may have had 4 monolithic towers topped with lions surrounding the Hall too, but then positioned like the Taj Mahal towers. At least their sculpture does show this in two miniature models. See: Gandhara, 2nd century CE, has 4 lion-crowned Stambhas surrounding the Stupa on a platform. http://upload.wikime...a2ndCentury.jpg
An stylistical miniature example: Model of a stupa (Buddhist shrine), ca. 4th century, Pakistan, ancient region of Gandhara, Bronze; H. 22 3/4 in. (57.8 cm), W. 7 1/2 in. (19.1 cm). Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Donald J. Bruckmann, 1985 (1985.387ab) Source of description: Model of a stupa (Buddhist shrine) [Pakistan, ancient region of Gandhara] (1985.387ab) | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History | The Metropolitan Museum of Art
Monolithic or Towers were a special feature of Bauddha, Jaina (especially the Manastambhas), Shaiva and Vaishnava temples: KIrtistambhas, Dhvajastambhas, DIpastambhas etc.
Minarets of Muslims have a very vague history. Actually Muslims made a difference bewteen a Manar = square Light House (kind of DIpastambha) and a place for the Muezzin, which could be from any high place, orginally from the roof of buildings. Round or Cylindrical towers were later applied from (east)Iran. Even Fergusson, but also Diez and many other scholars consider the round towers as adopted from Bauddha and Hindu from east-Iranian (especially Afghanistan) and Central-Asia.
A feature of a building containing 4 towers is actually copied by Timur from Delhi. He commissioned a mosque to be built in Samarkand based upon the one in Delhi. As he obviously lacked a Sthapati and chief masons within his groups of captured Indian artisans, and as the chief mason was a Muslim from outside India, his project produced a sorry result (compared to master pieces in India).
ShAstras like the MAnasAra clearly describe mansions with surrounding KarNa-harmyas or corner houselike towers. These towers in the corners are also called karNa-CUlikAs in the MAnaSara. These can be attached to the main mansion (temple or palace), but also detached, both giving a PancAyatana concept if it is a houselike tower. (Otherwise detached ones could technically be called KarNa-stambhas and can be the Manastambhas or KIrtistambhas or DIpastambhas).
Material used, could be wood, bricks and stones. Marble (sphatika = originally crystall quartz, but Monier-Williams gives prastaraa nd different kinds of prastara, pASHANa, shilA, upala for marble) was also known, at least the stonecutters and mines from Gujarat and Rajasthan were very famous. For construction two techniques were also used, which were Sudhashila (sudha = plaster) and Vajralepa (adamantine glue coating). When both were combined it was also called Vajralepa.
White radiance of temples through plaster was called SAttvika, red radiance was RAjasika and black was TAmasika. There was a white temple dedicated to Surya, according to the Mandasor inscription of 473 C.E. with the phrase "the temple resembling a mountain shines white", in line 16. (Indian Antiquary, vol. xv, p. 196)
The LakSHmaNa temple in Khajurahu was also white plastered 'like the peaks of the mountains of snow'. (inscription of 1011 C.E.)
The Garbhamana system of measuring divides the sacred plot or sanctum in nine divisions, called ASHTApAda or PAdASHTa.
garbhamAna-pramANena prAsAdaM shRNuta dvijAH |
vibhajya navadhA garbhaM madhye syAl-linga-pITHikA || (Matsya 269.15)
pAdASHTakaM tu ruciraM pArshvataH parikalpayet |
mAnena tena vistAro bhittInAM tu vidhIyate || (Matsya 269.16)
This Garbhamana method with the ASHTa-pAdas is the real origin at least from Gupta times of the much later word Hasht Bihisht (New Persian, post-Sasanian) used by modern writers for this concept in architecture, and wrongly ascribed by these to Persians and as a concept used by Mughals, but this last word Hasht Bihisht can be found nowhere in literature before Amir Khushro of India. And that too in a non-architecture use (denoting eight heavens).
Ashtapada in Garbhamana method, thus, denotes 8 Padas or squares surrounding a central one. Every Divine Pada has its own Vasu and VAstupuruSHa. All the 8 Padas represent 8x4 = 32 Devatas; the central 9th Heavenly Pada, the Brahmasthana is represented by the 33th Devata. That's why the Divine Ashta-pada of the Garbhamana method was rendered as the New Persian created word Hasht Bihisht. This Ashta-pada division was also known as Pitha-pada in the Vastushastras! This is clearly an Indian method and certainly not a Persian.
One MaNDapa using nine courts can be a the Ranga Mandapa or Ranga Mahal. Perhaps the ancient Palace of Vasantasena as described in the Mrcchakatikam with 8 great courts and a garden is also arranged as a grand ASHTapAda. But, I am not sure about this. Even though it is described in an ancient Sanskrit play, it must be based upon a real grand mansion complex of a wealthy person in Ujjain. An example of the old Malwa school of architecture.
Many types of laid-out gardens attached to mansions are described, collectively called KAnana. Famous are the Ujjayini gardens of the ancient Malwa school. Residential buildings or NivAsa bhavanas and pleasure pavilions or VilAsa bhavanas were placed in different types of KAnanas, with rows of different kinds of trees.
Many types of Yantras are described, especially the ones supplying waters being used for the gardens, fountains, etc.
City planning included different shapes, like square (caturashra), rectangular (Ayatana) like the Taj Mahal, round (vrttAnta), semicircular or bow-shaped (KArmuka, like an Arddha-Chandra) like the Agra Red Fort and Salimgarh above the Delhi Red Fort, etc.
According to one authority, a metropolis (Nagara) could have a capital city (RAjadhAnI), with a secondary city (PaTTana, actually predominantly a merchant's city) attached to it, all with their suburbas (ShAkha-Nagaras), including quarters for other merchants/traders, artisans, soldiers, etc.
As Agra seems to have another city on the eastern bank (based on the 16th century description of Pelsaert), jointly forming an ancient metropolis with the city on the western bank, it follows the description of the DroNa type of city of the ShAstras.
In short, Indian Vastu architecture is grossly misunderstood and described from a limited angle. And its value, coupled to indigenous and Rajput architecture and creativity before and during the Sultanate and Mughal period, is enormously underestimated, by giving its credits to the newly created and non-existent Pathan and Saracenic architecture (inventions of James Fergusson, a merchant having taken up a study on architecture) and overestimated Timurid and Mughal architecture, even though they have their own beauty. But if claims or credits for creation can discredited through primary sources, what then is Mughal architecture? The real credit in any way should be given rightly to Indian architects, masons, sculptors, carpenters, common labourers and their shastras and creative minds.