<span style='font-size:14pt;line-height:100%'>Long before Copernicus, Galileo & Ptolemy, Aryabhata propounded the Heliocentric Theory of Gravitation, that all planets revolve around the Sun due to celestial gravity. The term given to Celestial Gravity was Guru-tva-Akarshana, which also has a philosophic meaning. Guru represents the Master, the Inner Sun, symbolic of the Self and the planets that revolve represent the students who are on their way to Self_Actualisation !</span>
In Sanskrit Astronomy is known as Khagola Sasthra and Aryabhata worked at an astronomical observatory called Khagola. He studied at the University of Nalanda which housed more than 9 million books.
The Sexagesimal Division of a Day ( Sixtieth Division )
<span style='font-size:14pt;line-height:100%'>The Life span of Breath is 4 seconds, called as an Asu or a Pranakala in Sanskrit. 6 such Asus constitute a Vinadi and 60 such Vinadis constitute a Nadi. 60 Nadis is one day. In other words, a day is 86400 seconds and 21600 Asus. This sexagesimal division of a day is the base of Indian Astronomy. 15 such days constitute a Fortnight. There are two types of Fortnights - Dark Fortnight ( Krishna Paksha ) & Bright Fortnight ( Shukla Paksha ). These 2 fortnights constitute a month. Two months together is one Rithu and there are six seasons ( Rithus ). Aries & Taurus together is Vasantha, Gemini & Cancer Greeshma, Leo & Virgo Varsha , Libra & Scorpio Sharath, Sagittarius & Capricorn Hemantha and Aquarius & Pisces Sisira. Six months is one Ayana and there are 2 types of Ayanas - Dakshinayana ( the southern progress of the Sun, his declination South ) & Uttarayana ( the northern progress of the Sun, his declination north ). 12 such months or 6 Rithus or 2 Ayanas constitute a solar year. Since precession is 72 years per degree, one Age Cycle is 72*30 = 2160 years and 2 million Age Cycles is one Cosmological Cycle.</span><i>note the mention of six seasons, also touched on by Ashok Kumar in another thread in a different context.</i>
One Cosmological Cycle is 4.32 Billion years, known as a Brahma day. The Life span of Brahma is 100 sidereal years or 2*4.32*360*100 = 3.1104*10^14 years ! Indian Astronomy is graced by such gigantic calculations starting from 1/21600th of a day to 3.1104*10^14 years !
The Ursa Major Cycle (<i>the Saptha Rishis are also discussed by Koenraad Elst in an earlier post on this thread</i>)
<span style='font-size:14pt;line-height:100%'>The constellation of Ursa Major ( The Saptha Rishies ) move backwards along the Zodiac, staying in a constellation for 100 years. To make a circuit of the Zodiac, they take 27*100 = 2700 years. This is known as an Ursa Major Cycle. Remarks Prof Drayson in "Asiatic Researches ", " The Indians thought proper to connect their mythology with an astronomical period of a strange nature. It is that of the Seven Rishies, moving along the Zodiac in a retrograde motion of 2700 years." Ursa Major was in Regulus at the start of the Mahabharatha War. The first astronomical calender was erected by the Indian emperor Vaivaswatha Manu ( circa 8736 BC ) and it was based on the Ursa Major Cycle.</span>
D or Lunar Day ( Thidhi )
When we deduct the longitude of the Sun from the longitude of the Moon, we get the Thidhi or Lunation.
D ( Lunar Day ) = Lm ( Longitude of Moon ) - Ls ( Longitude of Sun )
The First Lunar Day is called Prathama ( Moon within 12 degrees of the Sun ) , the Second is called Dwitheeya ( Moon within 12 and 24 degrees of the Sun ) and we have 14 lunar days before Full Moon. The 15th Lunar Day is Full Moon ( Pournami ). When the Moon is conjunct at 0 degrees from the Sun, it is New Moon ( Amavasya ). All Indian religious festivals are based on the position of the heavens.
Prathama Moon between 0 degrees and 12 degrees from the Sun
Dwithyeeya Moon between 12 degrees and 24 degrees
Thritheeya Moon between 24 degrees and 36 degrees
Chathurthi Moon between 36 degrees and 48 degrees
Panchami Moon between 48 degrees and 60 degrees
Shashti Moon between 60 degrees and 72 degrees
Sapthami Moon between 72 degrees and 84 degrees
Ashtami Moon between 84 degrees and 96 degrees
Navami Moon between 96 degrees and 108 degrees
Dasami Moon between 108 degrees and 120 degrees
Ekadasi Moon betw een 120 degrees and 132 degrees
Dwadasi Moon between 132 degrees and 144 degrees
Thrayodasi Moon between 144 degrees and 156 degrees
Chathurdasi Moon between 156 degrees and 168 degrees
Pournami Moon between 168 degrees and 180 degrees
East & West Points on the Celestial Horizon (the equinoxes)
East and West Points are two intersecting points between the Ecliptic and the Celestial Horizon. If on the Celestial Horizon, you mark E as East , W as West, N as North and S as South, then NES is the Eastern Celestial Horizon, SWN is the Western Celestial Horizon, ENW is the Northern Celestial Horizon & ESW is the Southern Celestial Horizon.
Ayana Sandhis - Intersecting Points between the Ecliptic and the Celestial Equator(the equinoxes)
<span style='font-size:14pt;line-height:100%'>
The Ecliptic is slanted 23 degrees 27 minutes from the Celestial Equator. The intersecting points between them are called as Ayana Sandhis. These Sandhis are not static. They have a retrograde motion of 50.3 seconds per year. When the Sun crosses the Celestial Equator from the South to the North, that intersecting Point is Meshadi, the First Point of Aries and when he crosses the C E from North to South that point is called Thuladi, the First Point of Libra. At the start of the Dark Age ( Kali Yuga ), all planets were in the First Point of Aries. The First Point of Aries was in the constellation of Beta Arietis or Aswini. During the Vedic period, the First Point of Aries was in Karthika. That is why in the Vedas, the constellations are counted from Karthika onwards. Now Tropical Meshadi is behind Sidereal First Point of Aswini by 23 degrees 52 minutes. This motion of the Ayanas is called Precession.</span>
-Article by G Kumar, Astrologer, writer and programmer - www.eastrovedica.com and www.astrognosis.com. He has 15 years research experience in Stock Market Astrology and in various other branches of Astrology. He had developed Horary Astrology & Stock Market Astrology softwares along with Natal & Electional. To subscribe to his Free ezine, the Z Files, visit: http://www.astrologiavedica.com/subscrib...Mailer.asp Through his website he offers Astrology Consultancy, Software and printouts. He is contactable at info@eastrovedica.com. Address of his physical shop is Zodiac Computers, 3/528 Tkss Bldgs, East Nada, Guruvayur Kerala, India 680101. Office Phone +91 0487-2552851. Home Phone +91 0487-2422060
Astrology or Jyotisha was considered one of the vedangas by the ancients. Note that the vedic ancients were the first humans on this planet to mention Nirukta (Etymology) and Vyakarana (Grammar) as a subject of study. In fact it would be a fair claim to make that until Sir William Jones made himself acquainted with these texts, such subjects (as a field of study) were unknown in the rest of the world .
The six Vedangas (organs of the Vedas) are glorified as an essential subset of the 14 Vidyasthanas â the abode of true knowledge and wisdom. They help to understand Veda mantras completely and in depth. For the Veda Purusha, the 6 limbs are:
1. - Siksha lays down the rules of phonetics â pronunciation / sounds / duration of utterance of each syllable â euphony. The goal is to achieve correct pronunciation and articulation through, akshara suddhi (syllable purity); svara suddhi (tonal / pitch purity â discussed in Vol. 1.2) and maatraa suddhi (durational purity), balam (force of articluation), samam (evenness) and santana: (continuity). Phonetics are most critical in the case of Vedic language, because, as was discussed in the article of the previous issue of the Journal (Vol. 1.2), we see that a change in sound results in completely different effects. Because of its importance, the first chapter of Taittiriya Upanishad â siksha valli - describes these six attibutes in its very first section in the following verse:
As the mother tiger (cat family) carries its young gripping it by its teeth (firm, so that cub does not fall, but gentle, so that it does not harm), the mantras must be chanted lucidly, unblurred, unfaded and not too loud. Neither should they be casually mouthed nor spat in staccato tones !
The Sanskrit language has 51 letters, called Maatruka . Maatru is the cosmic Mother and the 51 letters are in Her image. The Siksha Sastra says that these 51 letters represent the various parts of Her body and even define which one represents which
part !
2. - Vyakaranam â The most important exposition of Grammar is that of sage Panini which is in the form of sutras or aphorisms. It is known as ashtaadhyaayi, because it has 8 chapters. There is an interesting story relating to the origin of the Panini Sutras. At the end of the Cosmic Dance, Lord Nataraja (Siva) clicked his damaru 9 times and 5 times (14 times). The dance was witnessed by Sanaka and other rishis. Sage Panini, also witnessed the dance through his "divya dhrushti" . With the 14 sounds produced from His damaru, Lord Siva gave birth to the vyakarana sutras or Mahesvara surtras Refer Sanskrit Lesson of Vol. 1.1) . They are recited during the observance of Upakarma on Sravana Poornima.
The commentary on the Vyakarana is called Maha Bhashya written by Sage Patanjali. The other commentary was written by Vararuchi. These three - the Vyakarana and the two commentaries - are important texts in Vyakarana Sastra. Vyakarana propounds the Sabda Brahma Vaada â that Sound and Brahman are One - which is the basis of Nada Brahma Upasana ( Vol. 1.2) â Music !
3. - Chandas : Though the word chandas also means vedas themselves, the meaning here refers to the meter of vedic poetry. Rig and Sama vedas are fully in the form of verses, whereas, Yajur Veda has prose and poetry. A sloka or veda mantra is generally a quartet with four quarters or paada . Depending on the number of syllables in each of the paadas, we have different meters â anushtup (8 syllables), brihati (9), pankti (10), trishtup (11), ushnik (4 paadas of 7 syllable each = 28 syllables) â like that up to even 26 syllables to a paada. (Any meter beyond 26 syllables to a paada, is called dandakam.) The well known Gayatri Mantra has three paadas of 8 syllables each; the meter itself is known as gayatri since it has 24 syllables; however, when people perform japa, they recite it only as a 23 syllabled meter ( instead of ), and so is called nicrut gayatri chandas.
Chandas helps us to ensure the form of the Mantra (by meter count). No alteration to this can be attempted since it would disturb the spiritual significance of the mantra itself!
Each mantra is dedicated to a Devata, has a specific chandas and has a Rishi who brought it to the world. That is the reason why we touch our head as we recite the name of the Rishi (symbolically placing his feet on our head), touch the nose when we recite the chandas (the guardian for the mantra is meter and so there is no life of the mantra without it; in the same way, there is no life without breath); touch our heart when reciting the name of the devata (to meditate upon the deity in our heart)
4. - Nirukta is generally known as vedic dictionary or kosa . Amara Kosa is one of the popular sanskrit dictionaries. Dictionary is also called nighandu. Kosa is actually the etymology where each word is split into syllables and gives the root from which the word is derived with meaning. The root of a word is called dhaatu . In Sanskrit all words have roots.
<span style='font-size:14pt;line-height:100%'>5. -Jyotisha deals with vedic astrology / astronomy. It was mainly designed to help in arriving at the most favorable time for the performance of vedic rituals; this is to indicate the measure of success or lack of it when vedic rituals are performed under the influence of a particular graha, nakshatra, tithi etc. It involves precise mathematical calculations concerning the transit of planets etc., and so mathematics is an integral part of it. Jyotisha sastra has three parts - skandha trayaatmakam . (the word skandha means main branch from the trunk of a tree ) </span>They are,
1. siddhanta skandham : deals with trigonometry / arithmatic / algebra / geometry etc.
2. hora skandham : deals with the movement of planets and their effect on people etc.
3. samhita skandham deals with aspects like, the location of underground waters, designing and building houses, of omens, etc.
<b>Jyotisha sastra covers principles of gravitation, rotation of earth etc. Famous astronomers like Arya Bhatta, Varahamihira and others have given beautiful discussions on these and other concepts. </b>
<i>It appears that Jyotisha includes what we would consider mechanics or at least celestial mechanics. I need to dig into this further to see to what extent Aryabhatta anticipated newtonian mechanics, given that it is almost a certainty that he postulated a heliocentric solar system. It is inconceivable that they were able to make complex calculations of planetary motions without access to the rudiments of newtonian mechanics. In another post in the thread on we have made mention that Indian mathematicians appear to have grasped the concepts and methods of calculus well before the end of the 1st meillenium CE. The extent of the calculus that was known to the ancients needs to be determined. This needs people who are well versed not only in Sanskrit but also in Mechanics</i>
The origin of creation is also calculated using astronomical principles; the samkalpam which we perform before doing any ritual is based on such calculations. (Details of these and similar concepts will be discussed in a future article).
6. - Kalpa deals with the aspects inducing a person into vedic action. The mastery in the other 5 vedangas mentioned so far is aimed to perform the actions mentioned in kalpa successfully. In a way, it is like a manual which will give details like a) how a ritual should be done; B) what are the functions of brahmacharis, grihastas, sannyasis etc. c) what ritual involves which mantra, devata, materials d) how many priests should perform a given ritual, e) what vessel of what shape, size to be used etc.
Kalpa sastra (sutra) has been compiled by many sages like, Apasthamba, Bhodayana, Vaikhanasa, and others. In each of the veda recensions, there are two kinds of kalpa sutras â the srouta (named after sruti which means veda) sutra and the grihya sutra. They outline the forty rituals (garbhadana, pumsavana, seemantha, etc. â details of which will be covered in a future issue) to be performed from the time of formation of the embryo in the womb to the time of cremation of the body ! They also outline the eight Atma gunas (virtues like, compassion, tolerance, cleanliness etc.) Among the two sutras, srouta sutras describe the major sacrifices and the Grihya sutras describe the domestic rites. When we do abhivadanam to elders, we state what sutra we follow â Apasthamba, Bodhayana etc. These refer to Srouta sutras. In ancient times, the Srouta karmas were given greater importance than grihya karmas. In addition, there are other texts called, sulpa sutras, dharma sutras etc. Among the four vedas, the kalpa sutras of Atharva Veda (which itself is very very less in practice), are not readily available.
<span style='font-size:14pt;line-height:100%'>As mentioned earlier, these six sastras are known as vedangas or the organs (limbs) of the vedas.</span> Our Rishis have done a very great service to humanity through such analytical and sophisticated approach to enable the understanding of the veda mantras. It is really sad that whatever little scholarship remains today in these subjects is fast deteriorating due to lack of adequate appreciation and encouragement. Let us all commit to change this trend for the better as a token of our gratitude to veda mata!
Ref: "The Vedas", Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, Bombay, 1991.
Feature article of next issue
The Upangas
(Subsidiary Organs of the Vedas)
The following is from lesson 3 of the same link above; I post it here since it gives both the English and Sanskrit versions of the names of the naksharas and Raashis.
The real path of the earth around the Sun is called the Ecliptic.
9 degrees to either side of the Ecliptic is a belt of the Heavens known as the Zodiac. (Dante called it the Oblique Line that beareth all planets).
First 30 degrees of the Zodiac constitute the sign of Aries. The next 30 degrees Taurus and so on. The Zodiac counted from the first degree of Aries to the 360th degree of Pisces is called the Tropical Zodiac.
These 12 signs are the limbs of the Cosmic Man or Time Eternal (Kalapurusha- The Almighty Self as Time).
Aries is His head, Taurus His face, Gemini His neck, Cancer His heart, Leo the place beneath, Virgo His belly, Libra His generative organs, Scorpio the place beneath, Sagittarius His upper thigh, Capricorn his lower thigh, Aquarius His leg and Pisces His feet!
The Zodiac is tenanted by 27 constellations each of them spread over an arc of 13 degrees 20 minutes. The Zodiac counted from the first degree of Beta Arietis ( Aswini) to the 360th degree of Zeta Piscium ( Revathi) is known as the Sidereal Zodiac.
Western Astrology is based on the Tropical Zodiac and the Vedic on the Sidereal.
A clear night sky with bright stars is and has always been an object of fascination for mankind. One can probably see about 10,000 stars though millions exist. In this computer era, humans have lost the awe of the objects in the sky due to astonishing advances in science through modern astronomy, human visits to Moon, remote robotic visions of Mars, and views of galaxies through the Hubble telescope. Humans feel a sense of control and omnipotence about their future. However astronomical events listed below makes one wonder.
The Shoemaker-Levy cometâs earth size impact on Jupiter in 1994
the Siberian comet impact of 1908's
The alleged comet impact on the Yucatan Peninsula in Mexico resulting in extinction of Dinosaurs.
The helplessness and insignificance of human power in the face of even minor cosmic events becomes apparent. These events put in to perspective the historical respect and reverence past human societies have had for possible devastation from the sky.
Observation of precise cyclic movement of bodies in the skies formed the basis for calendars and almanacs throughout human history. Relation of apparent motion of Sun, Moon, planets and stars observed from earth, to the solar year with its different seasons controlling weather and agriculture was well known to most older societies (Ref-9). Many societies independently fitted the observed heavenly body motion in to different almanacs with major religious and cultural components in the past. Some are known and certainly many are lost. Even today, such almanacs exist and are used for religious and cultural identity. These almanacs are solar pointer, lunar pointer or a combination of these types. Amongst these, the European Julian solar calendar system modified by Rome's pope Gregory in October 1582 AD, has displaced all other almanacs and is in universal use throughout the world presently. The Gregorian calendar has no lunar components whatsoever.
<span style='color:red'>In the vedic literature, Bharateeya's have the oldest continuing culture running for thousands of years. Pre-vedic culture understood the motions of the bodies in skies and evolved a moon pointer calendar, moon pointing to daily stars in the skies. Various stars in the moon path and a few others were given proper names many thousand years ago. Some notable proper names from veda's assigned to stars are the 27 or 28 daily stars Ashwini to Revati, the saptarishis (Ursa major for Rishis Marichi,Vasishta,Angirasa,Atri,Puslastya,Pulaha,Karatu or Gautama, Bhardwaja, Vishvamitra, Kashyapa, Jamdagni, Vasishtha and Atri), Dhruva (Polaris) and Arundhati. Chandramana or Moon pointer almanac has been extensively used during and since Vedic period. The thousands of year old lunar almanac system is an integral part of traditional Bharateeyaâs, who probably have a birth horoscope where in an important parameter is the birth Nakshatra and birth Rashi. While many Bharateeyaâs know that nakshatra's refer to objects in the sky, not many can point to the night sky and identify these Nakshatra's by their names. </span>
This article aims identify the Nakshatraâs referred to by Bharateeya vedic culture, and to provide present day alternate names from other cultures, including modern astronomical identities from star catalogs.
<b>Bharateeya Nakshatra System: </b>
<span style='font-size:14pt;line-height:100%'>Though the lunar time between two successive full moons is 29.53059 solar days, the time taken for moon to go round the earth (sidereal month) is 27.32166 days. Moon also has an oscillatory motion crossing the ecliptic. The moon anomalistic motion and nodal motion have periods are 27.55545 and 27.21222 days for a revolution around earth. The reason for time between full moons being higher than sidereal month is because, the moon has to go around the earth by more than a revolution (nearly 390 degrees) to keep with earth which moves forward in its trajectory around sun. The Chandramaana lunar calendar system keeps a natural cyclic count of days using two Moon based properties described below. </span>
<span style='font-size:14pt;line-height:100%'>First property is that moon functions as an astronomical day count clock in which Moon is the pointer and the stars are numerals in the sky pointed to by moon each day of the lunar month. The astronomers of Vedic period identified this approximate 13 degree movement of the moon between successive days and named the 27/28 stars pointed to by moon on a daily basis over a rotation as 27/28 nakshatra's, corresponding to little less than a lunar month. Thus a Nakshatra shift corresponds to moon traverse over approximately one solar day.
The second property is the size of fractional moon exposure to sun can indicate a day count and is defined as a moon day or thiti. Thirty thiti's are defined in a lunar month, each thiti being smaller than a solar day. Fifteen are identified as Shukla paksha or ascending fortnight and next fifteen are called krishna paksha or descending fortnight.
This system of day count calendar keeping, is traceable to Veda's. Veda's, which are perhaps the oldest original documentation of knowledge any where in the world, still in their original shape and language. A study of the Veda's, Brahmana's, and Aaranyaka's point exclusive use of a lunar pointer as the primary calendar in the Vedic periods. Pournamsya, a time at which earth, sun, moon are aligned is a time of singularity used for religious purposes and formed the unit of half a month and is used in Rigveda. The Vedas also refer to solar events such as Aayanas, and Vishuwat-Sankramana's as solar singular events. Ayana means Solstices when apparent North-South movement of Sun reverses, usually occurring on June 21 and Dec 22. Vishuwat means equal or the spring and fall equinoxâs when daytime is equal to nighttime, usually occurring on March 21 and Sep 21. There are vedic references to solar singularities with corresponding solar/lunar pointed star locations.
The six-season definition is unique to vedic system and is not found in any other recorded culture or system. These seasons are, Vasanta, Geeshma, Varsha, Sharad, Himavanta and Shishira each season being about two moon cycles. It is in Taittareeya Samhita (Krishna Yajurveda) and in Atharva samhita 19th kaanda /7th Sootra that an explicit first definition and identification of the twenty- seven(28) Nakshatraâs is available (Refs, 1 and 2). It should be noted that the concept of Zodiac/Raashi is not even hinted in any vedic texts of the old period. </span>
The table below provides a list of the twenty-seven stars from Taittareeya Samhita and Krishna Yajurveda 4th Kaanda 4th Prashna of Andhra School. Similar list is referred to in Atharvaveda, 19th kaanda/7th Sookta. It differs from the Yajurveda list in that twenty eight stars are listed. In 19th Kaanda/8th sooktha twenty eight(ashtha vimshaani) nakshatras are declared. The nakshatra not explicitly used in Jyotishya and in yajurveda is named Abhijit. The taiaareeya brahmana (third Ashtaka) derived from yajurveda again lists 28 nakshatras including Abhijit. It is referred to in Athrvana veda. The author or Drashtaara of Atharva veda sookta is Gaargya Rishi.
The confusion about 27/28 Nakshatras can be analyzed as follows. The 27.3 days taken by moon for visiting the same star can be rounded to either 27 or 28. Each of these integers represents a nakshatra or a daily star. It is possible that initially 28 nakshatras were proposed and defined to represent every day. This is evident from Gargyaâs Nakshtara sooktha. Subsequently many years later when Jyotishya was taking a more formal and mathematical shape, 27 integer identities were perhaps found to be more reasonable and accurate. Hence one of the original 28 nakshatras had to be deleted. This could not be done easily as the vedas are considered to be âapourusheyaâ and no liberties were allowed. Hence perhaps Abhijit, was declared to be an imaginary nakshatra meant only for phala.(ref 10).
The Table below lists names of Nakshatras, the deity to which Nakshatra is dedicated to, and alternate names. Ashwini and Bharani are listed as last two Nakshatras. Note that the list starts from Krittika and not from Ashwini as is currently used in Jyotishya Shaastra (Ref 3). The time at which Rishi Gargya documented the list of nakshatra's in Atharvana Veda is at least circa 2400 BC, as analyzed in appendix I. The appendix also dates the Jyotishya Shaastra as having been brought in to the present form around circa 400 BC.
The lunar calendar was in universal and secular use in ancient Bhaarata. Historical events used lunar calendar for dating all events. It is well known that Gautama Buddha was born, achieved his enlightenment and died on full moon day with the full moon pointing to Vishakha Nakshatra. The twelve months were named after the stars at which full moon occurs and these are Chaitra, Vaishakha, Jyeshta, Ashaada, Sharavna, Bhadrapda, Ashwija, Kaartika, Margashira, Pushya, Maagha, Phalguna. Typically alternate stars with some skips refer to month names and hence accommodate 27 stars corresponding to nearly 360 degrees motion of Sun in a solar year. The first question that arises is whether a 'Nakshatra' corresponds to one single star entity or a group of stars in the sky. Bharateeya Jyotishya shaastra states that each Nakshatra name corresponds to a group of stars called star mansions or Asterisms. The concept is that Chandra or Moon visits these mansions in his trajectory around earth. It is very possible that at the inception of daily star concept during the early vedic period, a Nakshatra may have been a specific single star. Nakshatra positions may have been rationalized in later days to mansions or groups of stars for purposes of mathematical averaging to be exactly 13.333 degrees apart required in Jyotishya. The table above also shows the number of stars, accepted by Jyotishya shaastra, constituting the specific Nakshatra.
European Influence on the Bharatheeya system:
The European view (originally from Chaldian and Kassarian cultures of Middle East and from Egypt), propagated by Greek philosophers, of the night sky and the star system ran in a different direction in ancient times in that Sun was considered as the pointer to skies. In contrast, the moon is considered to be the primary pointer from vedic astronomical point of view. Star groups pointed to by the sun were defined as Zodiacs representing clusters of stars forming shapes of animals and figures. Zodiacs were named after animal shapes or Greek mythological figures. The twelve months were named and represented Zodiac groups, which had an animal form through which the Sun passes.
If we compare the names of Bhaarateeya Rashis and Zodiacs and Weekdays, are same but for the language as shown in table below. It is inconceivable that two non-communicating societies can evolve name systems, which are translations of each other in a linguistic sense. Clearly, one of the two parties influenced the other.
Ravivar Sunday Sun
Induvasar or Somavar Monday Moon
Bhomyavasar or Mangalvar Tuesday Mars
Sowmyavasara orBudhavar Wednesday Mercury
Brihaspativasara or Guruvar Thursday Jupiter
Bhargava vasara or Shukravar Friday Venus
Sthiravasara or Shanivar Saturday Saturn</li>
The Vedas and other older texts do not refer to weekdays named after Graha's or Planets or to Raashis. The Grahas referred to in Veda's are Surya, Chandra, Brihaspati, Shukra, Budha, shani, Kuja, Rahu, Ketu. They extensively refer to Nakshatra month names and moon pointing at different Nakshatra's for various purposes. Therefore it appears likely that the Bharateeya cosmological system interacted with the European solar calendar and gradually the Jyotishya shaastra was modified to the present form, as we know now. Sun based concepts of Rashi, weekdays were invoked in to Jyotishya. This could have occurred, perhaps through contact with Yavanas (Greek's) as there is considerable evidence of Greek and Bharateeya interaction during period before Chandra Gupta. Appendix provides astronomical time markers which confirm the origins of Jyotishya Shaastra in present form to circa 400 BC. Without acceptance of this interaction, it is difficult to explain why the twelve Zodiacs of the European star system are translations of the Nakshatra-Rashi defined in Jyotishya.
It is worth while looking at the some Bharateeya astronomers of a more recent time of 300-500 AD. They are Aryabhata, Varaha Mihira, Brahma Gupta. These astronomers were aware of the vedic astronomy and made new and unique contributions. Specifically Aryabhata made contributions to Spherical geometry, a part of understanding the earth as a globe. Varaha Mihira's contributions include pesently used Soorya Siddhanta, (He refers to nine types of time keeping and calenders) and the fact that he proposed Prime Meridian through Ujjain in Madhya Pradesh. He knew of Earth's Precession and called it as ayanaamsha. Brahma Gupta made contributions to Arcsin in Trigonometry. Aryabhata had estimated the beginning of kaliyuga as 3102 BC. He stated that when he was 26, sixty of the 60-year cycles were completed after start of kaliyuga. Varahmihira made an estimate of 2526 before start of Shaka varsha for Mahabharata's Yudhishtira. Texts from that period like Yavana Jataka, Romaka Siddahnta provide evidence of understanding of European astronomical works.
The Chandramaana Lunar scale has 27 daily and twelve month name definitions. While amalgamating the solar calibrations of zodiacs in to Lunar calibrations of Nakshatra's, the issue of translating 27 Nakshatras in a revolution to 12 Rashis was solved in Jyotishya Shaastra by treating 1/4 of a Nakshatra as a unit making Nine quarters of Nakshatra as one Raashi....
Wow, Kaushal! It is a flood of good information! <!--emo&--><img src='style_emoticons/<#EMO_DIR#>/smile.gif' border='0' style='vertical-align:middle' alt='smile.gif' /><!--endemo-->
Will take me some while to go thorugh as I am pressed for time currently, but surely get back here as this topic is close to my heart too.
Abstract
The article compares astronomical identities proposed by R.H.Allen in 1899 with authors proposals in the web article âNames of Stars from period of Vedas
Introduction
A number of stars in the sky were given proper names by people of India, i.e, Bharata, during the Vedic period (2000-4000 BC?). Amongst them the twenty-eight names were given to stars over 360 degrees of the moon path along the ecliptic. Among these, use of one these names, Abhijit as a daily star has been discontinued in modern times. Ancient astrology of this culture, called Jyotishya Shasthra, has its origins during that period and has been gradually modified. This astrological system uses a moon-pointer daily star definition, based on the 27 daily stars, with Sanskrit proper names, corresponding to 13.33-degree steps along the ecliptic in the moon path. Efforts have been made to associate and identify these Sanskrit proper names to explicit star or groups of stars along the ecliptic, and determine their modern astronomical names. A recent 1998 web article 'Names of Stars from period of Vedas' by the author was a study of these names conducted based on study of the Veda-period Sanskrit texts. It proposed astronomical identity of these ancient star proper names. Among other such efforts, Richard Hinckley Allenâs 'Star names-Their lore and meaning' is considered to be a classical book. This book was originally published in circa 1899 and has been recently reprinted. The book provides an exhaustive picture of the proper names of stars from many cultures and the folklore from the 1899 period. The present study compares the astronomical identity of the 27 Vedic daily stars proposed in 'Names of Stars from period of Vedas' by S. Balakrishna with the identity indicated for the same 27 daily stars in 'Star names-Their lore and meaning' by Richard Hinckley Allen.
R.H Allenâs work
Richard Hinckley Allenâs book 'Star names- Their lore and meaning' was originally published in 1899. It provides proper names of stars from many cultures over the period of recorded history. The book studies the names of stars, constellation by constellation in an alphabetical order. In each constellation, the proper names of stars from various cultures are discussed. It includes the then contemporary astronomical identity of stars as Flamsteed numbers and Bayer identities. The book covers all the constellations. The period of the book was before formalization of the constellation definitions to 88 by International Astronomical Union in 1930. The pattern followed in the book is to identify all visible stars in each constellation through their Bayer identities and then address their historical European names (Greek and other nationalistic cultures), followed by the Arabic names, the Chinese names and âHindu names`. This has been systematically carried out to cover all the constellations. In each case, anecdotal data is provided using local folklore, historical documents and other cultural documents. An analysis is provided with suggestions as to possible influence of one culture on the other, in arriving at the proper names for stars. The aim of this article is to compare R.H.Allenâs âHinduâ names of stars from his 1899 book, to the one proposed by the present author in his article 'Names of Stars from period of vedas' in 1998.
Ecliptic Longitude range of Vedic Stars
Indian astrology, as currently practiced, proposes that the Aeries-0 is 23 degrees 51 minutes (Ayanaamsha) in 2000 AD away from the Vernal Equinox. Every year this changes by a small amount due to Precession. The ecliptic 360 degrees have been divided in to 27 nakshathras, each spanning 13.333 degrees or 13 deg 20 minutes of angle. It corresponds to 53 .33 minutes of sun time in 24-hour system. The following table details vedic star ranges Circa 2000 Precession.
Time shows start of Nakshathra, and it ends at beginning of next
Nakshathra
Hour
Min
Deg
min
Ashwini
1
35
23
51
Bharani
2
28
37
11
Kritiika
3
21
50
31
Rohini
4
15
63
51
Mrigashira
5
8
77
11
Aardhra
6
1
90
31
Punarvasu
6
55
103
51
Pushya
7
48
117
11
Aaslesha
8
41
130
31
Maghaa
9
35
143
51
Poorva Phalguni
10
28
157
11
Uttara Phalguni
11
21
170
31
Hastaa
12
16
183
51
Chithra
13
9
197
11
Swaati
14
2
210
31
Vishaaka
14
56
223
51
Anooraadha
15
49
237
11
Jyeshta
16
42
250
31
Moola
17
36
263
51
Poorva Aashada
18
29
277
11
Uttara aashada
19
22
290
31
Shravana
20
16
303
51
Dhanishta
21
9
317
11
Shata Bhishaja
22
2
330
31
Poorva Bhadrapada
22
56
343
51
Uttara Bhadhrapada
23
49
357
11
Revathi
0
42
10
31
Abhijit ranging from 288 deg to 291 degrees is not shown...
Positions of Vernal Equinox
Degree Nakshatra Date
1) 07 00' Pisces Uttarabhadra c. 1991 AD,
2) 00 00' Aries Ashwini c. 400 Ad, Puranic Era
3) 23 20' Aries Bharani c. 1280 BC, Vedanga Jyotish
4) 06 40' Tarus Krittika c. 2250 BC, Late Vedic Age
5) 00 00' Gemini Mrigrashira c. 4000 BC, Middle Vedic Age
6) 26 20' Gemini Punarvasu c. 6000 BC, Early Vedic Age
7) 05 00' Cancer Pushya c. 6500 BC, Early Vedic Age
I would be remiss if i did not mention a beautifully illustrated book titled 'Science and Technology in Ancient India, Published by Vijnan Bharati, A-10, Tulsi Bhavan, Sion, Mumbai, 400022, Tele 91-22-3886095. The cost of the book is only $15.00. I would suggest each one of us buy 2 books and donate one to the local library . I picked this one up at the India Fair in fremont (Independence day)a couple of years ago. It has an extensive section on Astronomy as well as on othere areas of technology. It is only now that we are able to decipher the hidden meanings in many ofthe slokas which were set to metre as a mnemonic device. Remember that memorization was the most efficient means of knowledge transmittal available to the ancients So brevity and terseness were essential to reduce the amount of workload in memorizing. The undesirable consequence of such brevity was loss of intelligibility save for a privileged few endowed with the knowledge and tenacity to pursue such interests.
<!--QuoteBegin-->QUOTE<!--QuoteEBegin-->The âBhrigu Samhitaâ is a treatise on Jyotish (Vedic astrology) compiled by âMaharishi Bhriguâ during Vedic period. Although the available evidence suggests that this was compiled over a period of time by the various Sisya (Students in the lineage) of Maharishi Bhrigu. Symbolically, all creation begins from Venus which represents Semen, the seed of all creation. That is why the beginning or the seed of this vast knowledge was sown by Maharishi Bhrigu the father of Sukracharya (Venus). Jyotish is considered the Fifth Veda compiled during the Treta Yuga. (The first four are the Rig, Yajur, Sama and Atharva Veda which are Sruti 's having been heard by the Maharishiâs from the mouth of Lord Brahma). Maharishi Bhrigu compiled about 5 lakh horoscopes and recorded the life details and events of the persons along with their ages. This formed the database for further research and study. This study culminated in the birth of the science (Shastra) of determining the quality of time (Hora) and is the Brihat Parasara Hora Shastra. However, the compilation of the horoscopes seems to have continued for some time and these compilations are now found in the form of records in palm leaf manuscripts all over India. Often we find the principles of horary astrology, horoscopy and other branches of Vedic astrology being used therein to explain the events that have happened or are likely to come by. The primary database is based on the Rasi Chart (12 signs) and the ten variables of Navagraha and Lagna (i.e. Sun, Moon, Mars, Mercury, Jupiter, Venus, Saturn, Rahu, Ketu & Lagna). The total permutations/ possible horoscope charts that can be drawn with this is about 45 Million[1]. It is believed that about 5 lakh horoscopes (half million only) are available in the Bhrigu Samhita spread all over. Let us examine some of the claims in the light of this knowledge: -
Claim1: That these predictions consisted of Past, Present and Future of any native who was born in this earth.
  This is a rather tall claim as the number of horoscopes available is only half million against the total possibility of 45 million. The claim is not true and can be a marketing gimmick.
Claim 2. That there is only ONE original Bhrigu pundit stationed in Hoshiyarpur, India and that the rest are frauds.
  Thus none of the pundits have access to the entire database of 5 lakh horoscopes and each claims to have the original Bhrigu Samhita whereas others are frauds. Whereas their claim of having a miniscule portion of the Bhrigu Samhita is true, their claim of others as frauds is incorrect as this Samhita was spread all over India and Hoshiyarpur is but one town.
We can also draw the following inferences from this: -
  1.
   Infer#1: That the Bhrigu Samhita, as the name implies is a compilation (Samhita) of horoscopes that was started by Maharishi Bhrigu and was carried out by his Sisya (disciples/ students).
  2.
   Infer#2: That the Bhrigu Samhita formed the database for further research and study that led to the creation of the Nadi literature (determination of Principles and rules forming the paradigm of Jyotish) and then the Shastra (Scientific body of knowledge).
  3.
   Infer#3: That the Maharishiâs were well aware of advanced statistical methods for determination of rules and principles from databases. Perhaps these methods of Vedic Mathematics were far more advanced than what is available today.
The Cause of the Bhrigu Samhita
In the days of yore, although the Brahmin community was well versed in the four Veda and Purana, economic prosperity always deluded them. It was believed that their adoration of Goddess Saraswati alone and ignoring of Goddess Mahalaksmi was the cause of this poverty. To alleviate this suffering and poverty, Maharishi Bhrigu the strong and determined was advised to start worshipping Goddess Lakshmi. Thereafter Maharishi Bhrigu embarked on a long Tapasya[2] (penance) of appeasing the rich Goddess of good fortune and corn (Lakshmi). The resplendent and most beautiful Mahalaksmi appeared before Maharishi Bhrigu and guided him to start the occult science of Vedic Astrology and determine the methods to know the Past, Present and Future. She blessed that this knowledge if utilized by the Brahmins would surely remove their poverty and would also crown them with respect and admiration. There is no doubt that this penance of Maharishi Bhrigu has helped the greatest of Jyotish authors from time immemorial and savants like Kalidas (Uttar Kalamrita). Parasara, Varahmihira etc, must have benefited substantially from this seed of Jyotish.
History
Invading marauders and the Mughals led to the dispersion of the custodians of these Bhrigu manuscripts all over India. A large number of them was captured by them and taken away as booty. It is likely that this may have led to the beginning of the study of Astrology in the Arab world as some of the practices and methods like progression resemble the rudimentary teachings in the Manu Smriti. The single greatest loss occurred with the destruction of the Nalanda University.
Caution
The latest trend of preparing fake manuscripts in various parts of India is a sad development. Little do these people realise the kind of permanent damage they are doing to the authenticity of the Bhriguâs works. <!--QuoteEnd--><!--QuoteEEnd-->
The zodiac according to Indian Astrology comprises of 360 degrees. There are 27 Nakshatras or constellations in it.Therefore, the value of each constellation is 13 degrees and 20 minutes when measured from the fixed initial point. These 27 Nakshatras(stars) complete the entire circle of 360 degrees of the zodiac. A forecast based on the transit/ correlation/inter - relation of planets in relation to the Nakshatras is more accurate than the results predicted on the basis of any other system.
What is your Nakshatra (star)?
You can find it from the table given below. If you know the longitude of the Moon at the time of your birth in your natal chart calculated according to the Indian/ Vedic system, go to the 3rd column and go down till it lies between the two values given in the row above and below. Your Nakshatra or star would be the one given in the 2nd column the one at the start of range of longitude of your Moon.
No
Nakshatra(Star)
Longitude Sign-Deg- Min
Lords
1
Aswini
00-00-00
Ketu
2
Bharani
00-13-20
Venus
3
Kritika
00-26-40
Sun
4
Rohini
01-10-00
Moon
5
Mrigasira
01-23-20
Mars
6
Aridra
02-06-40
Rahu
7
Punarvasu
02-20-00
Jupiter
8
Pushya
03-03-20
Saturn
9
Aslesha
03-16-40
Mercury
10
Magha
04-00-00
Ketu
11
Poorvaphalguni
04-13-20
Venus
12
Uttaraphalguni
04-26-40
Sun
13
Hasta
05-10-00
Moon
14
Chitra
05-23-20
Mars
15
Swati
06-06-40
Rahu
16
Visakha
06-20-00
Jupiter
17
Anuradha
07-03-20
Saturn
18
Jyehsta
07-16-40
Mercury
19
Moola
08-00-00
Ketu
20
Poorvashadha
08-13-20
Venus
21
Uttarashadha
08-26-40
Sun
22
Sravana
09-10-00
Moon
23
Dhanshita
09-23-20
Mars
24
Satabisha
10-06-40
Rahu
25
Poorvabhadrapada
10-20-00
Jupiter
26
Uttarabhadrapada
11-03-20
Saturn
27
Revati
11-16-40
Mercury
Each Nakshatra or star that comes under Indian Astrology has an astronomical name associated with it and which is referred to by the Western Astrologers and Astronomers.
Table with Astronomical name equivalent of Indian Nakshatras.
No
The nakshatra kalpa of the Atharva veda that is considered the first parishishhTa of the AV adduces a R^ishi in addition to the tutelary deity to each nakshatra. These connections appears to have emerged much later than the devata-nakshtra connection, but may be of interest to investigate what these R^ishis meant. The list is:
asterism |seer |god
kR^ittika |agnivesha |agni
rohini |anurohI |prajapati
mR^igshiras |shvetAyI |soma and maruts
Ardra |bhArgava |rudra
punarvasu |vAtsyAyana |aditI
pushya |bharadvAja |bR^ihaspati
Alshlesha |jatukarNa |ahi
magha |vyAghrapada |pitarah
purva-phalguni |parAshra |bhaga
uttara-phalguni |upashiva | aryama
hasta |mAnDvaya | savitA
chitra |gotama | tvashTa
svati |kauNdiNya | vAyu
vishAkhA |kapi | indrAgni
anurAdhA |maitreya | mitra
jyeshTha |kaushika | indra
mUla |kutsa | NirR^iti
purva-ashADhA |harita | ApaH
uttara-ashADhA |kashyapa | vishvedevAH
abhijit |shaunaka | brahmA
shroNa |atri | vishhNu
shravishTha |garga | vasavaH
shatabhishak |dakshAyaNa | indrAvarunA
pUrva-proshThapadA |vatsa | aja-ekapAda
uttara-proshThapadA |agastya | ahirbudhnya
revatI |shA~nkyAyana | pUshA
ashvayuja |kAtyAyana | ashvinau
bharanI |R^ishi-patnya| yama
Also note that hasta (Corvus is called the hand of savitA) and the phrase devo vah savitA hiraNyapANi pratigR^ihnAtu is used often in the vedic literature. I wonder if this has a link with the position of Corvus in the East point position during the time these sacrificial rituals were initiated. As Achar points out the association of the constellation with the East point may have been of significance for sacrificial initiation.
From: "Koenraad Elst" <elst.koenraad@pandora.be>
Date: Mon Jan 16, 2006 6:27 am
Subject: astronomical evidence in the AIT debate elst.koenraad@pandora.be
Send Email
Remove Author | Ban Author
Friends,
To make good on my promise to dig up an instance of a consequential
misunderstanding of astronomy by the dominant school of Indian history, and by
Prof. Witzel in particular, I reread his paper on the Pleiades and the Bears
(EJVS 5.2). He mentions correctly that the Great Bear was always visible (i.e.
with its lowest point still above the horizon) at the Delhi latitude during the
Vedic period, but that larger and larger parts of it would rise and set as the
observer moves south from Delhi. So far, so good. But further down, he
incorrectly asserts just the opposite:
"During the Indo-Iranian period, the
'bears' (RkSAH) were not, of course, always visible in the night sky
and rise from a partial position below the horizon (especially if we
think of a BMAC or of a still more northern location): that would not
be possible even for most of the Panjab, and is only possible South of
Delhi, below c. 30* N."
He locates the "Indo-Iranian" ancestors of the Vedic people in Bactria, 37°N, or
even more north (coming from Russia, remember), and at those latitudes, the
Great Bear was and is *always* above the horizon, contrary to what Witzel claims
here. By contrast, the "always visible in the night sky" does *not* apply to
more southerly regions, such as those south of Delhi, again contrary to what he
says. The closer you get to the equator, the more stars rise and set; at the
equator, all stars rise and set and are above the horizon exactly half the time;
at the poles, no stars ever rise or set (except due to their own movement,
unrelated to the earth's motions, over months or years in the case of planets,
and over millions of years in the case of fixed stars), with the equatorial
stars all remaining at the horizon.
The argument about the dependence of the Great Bear's seeming motion on the
observer's latitude is important within the invasionist hypothesis that the
Vedic poets (and likewise later even the astronomer who wrote the Vedanga
Jyotisha) retained descriptions of astronomical sightings from their ancestors
(in this case about the rising and setting of rthe Great Bear) declaiming
ancestral observations which they themselves had never seen and failing to
describe the actual observations of their own eyes. An instance of special
pleading against which Occam's Razor must be applied.
Witzel also leans heavily on Pingree, whose argument against the astronomical
chronology is surprisingly weak. Thus, on Krttika's "never swerving from the
east", he states that except for Krttika, there were also other constellation on
the equator, thus rising due east. As if that were to invalidate that Krttika,
too, was on the equator, indicating a date of 2400 BC. It also so happens that
Krttika stood out as a favourite marker of the new year in many cultures, from
the Chinese to the Maori.
A second instance. I have the impression that Witzel misunderstands the term
"heliacal rising": "That means
the Pleiades were rising in the east at nightfall at fall equinox,
while the sun rises against their background at the spring equinox
(heliacal rising at vernal equinox)."
When "the Pleiades were rising in the east at nightfall at fall equinox", i.e.
in opposition to the setting sun, it means the sun was at 0° Libra and the
Pleiades at 0° Aries, and the Pleiades were visible all night long, setting when
the sun rose. It does indeed follow that six months later, at spring equinox,
"the sun rises against their background", or as they say: the sun was in
conjunction with the Pleiades (making them invisible). However, that is not the
meaning of "heliacal rising". This term refers to the moment when a star
becomes visible again after having been in conjunction with the sun and hence
invisible. In practice, this means you can see the star rise in the east just
before dawn and just before the stars become invisible under the powerful
daylight. How many days after the conjunction it happens, depends on the
latitude of the observer, but it should be at least two weeks or about 15°.
This means that the Pleiades at 0° Aries were conjunct the sun on 21 March but
had their heliacal rising on ca. 5 April, with the sun at ca. 15° Aries, two
weeks *after* the vernal equinox.
For another example of an astronomical misunderstanding in the orthodox school,
in a reply to my only-ever intervention on the Indo-Eurasian Research list
(#2229), one Arvind Vyas (same one as on this list?) wrote (#2234):
>One of the issues that most Vedic astronomy based chronologist as
well as the opponents have ignored so far is they have based their
calculations from India. This is true that the locations that are
mentioned in RV are of greater Punjab and Eastern Afganistan. The Location of
Delhi (which is used by most of the chronologists) is
roughly on the south-eastern side of the geography of RV (...). Though, I have
not analyzed the dates
on Panchang software like Dr. N. Achar etc., I would like to point
out a plain fact - as we would move north the chronology would
become lower. The revised astronomical chronology based on the
higher northern latitudes with clubbed with the evidences of
domistication of horse could perhaps give a better date for RV
without voilating the Astronomical data of RV and Brahmanas etc. As
the movement of Aryans have a general direction of from North-West
to South East many chronological gaps could be shrunk (due to
movement in south from nothern locales) based on the astronomical
data in later texts. (...) To resolve this one has to work what if the
observations were made say from Kabul or Sri Nagar or a location in Sagodia???<<
This is simply incorrect. While some astronomical observations do indeed change
with latitude (e.g. whether a star remains above the horizon 24 hours rather
than rising & setting, or how long day and night are at summer solstice), the
precession puts the same zodiacal degree against the same star regardless of the
observer's position on earth. And it is the precession on which the entire
astronomical chronology is based.
All this confirms my view that the attempt to reconcile the astronomical data
with a low chronology for Vedic literature is so far clumsy and unconvincing.
However, we should not leave it at that and cry victory, as too many Hindus tend
to do. What we need to do now is to write a complete survey of all the
astronomical evidence. I've made a start with the astronomy chapter in my
Update on the Aryan Invasion Debate, also available on the voiceofdharma
website. But we have improve on that. Prof. Narahari Achar has written some
fine papers on separate instances of astronomical evidence, but I look to
professionals like him to write out a complete summa. Does anyone else feel
called?
It is surprising that people make such gross errors in interpreting astronomical data.
Science textbooks in India hardly go into any details about astronomy. Even then hardly any Indian terminology is introduced. State of affairs about "astronomy" is very bad. Especially regarding the visible astronomy, the kind you can do without any telescopes, as people used to do in the old ages. In comparison, "Astro-physics" is taught at many universities. "Astrology" is of course everywhere.
Influence of foriegn astronomers on ancient Indian astronomy.
Here I quote from the article published by VigyanPrasar.
<!--QuoteBegin-->QUOTE<!--QuoteEBegin-->Ancient India made some big advances in science because it was in constant contact with other countries. After the conquest of the Indus basin by Darius around 520 B.C. India was thrown wide open to Babylonian influences. Through the Persians, India also came into contact with Greece. These contacts further increased during Alexander's campaign and again when the Greco-Bactrian kingdoms were established in North-West India. All these contacts greatly helped India in enriching her sciences, particularly astronomy.
This long period of intercourse with the west introduced many new ideas in the traditional system of Indian astronomy. The result was the advent of a class of texts called Siddhantas, characterised by a better scientific approach and more comprehensive treatment. There is ample evidence to show that Aryabhata (499 A.D.) and Varahamihira (6th century A.D.) were well-acquainted with Greek astronomy. The most celebrated astronomers after Varahamihira were Brahmagupta (b.598 A.D.), Lalla (8th cent.), Manjula or Munjala (10th cent.), Shripati (c.1039 A.D.) and Bhaskaracharya (b.1114 A.D.). In the post-Bhaskara period not much original work in astronomy and mathematics was done in India till modern times.
By the eighth century the Arabs had extended their conquests from Spain to Central Asia and to the border of India. Under the patronage of the Caliphs books of Indian, Persian and Greek science were translated into Arabic. In about 800 A.D. Aryabhata's treatise Aryabhatiyam was translated into Arabic under the title Zij-al-Arjabhar. Before that, in 772 A.D., Brahmagupta's two works, the Brahmasphuta-Siddhanta and the Khandakhadyaka, were taken to Baghdad and translated into Arabic. The knowledge of Indian numerals and the decimal place-value system reached the Arabs along with the Indian mathematical-astronomical works rendered into Arabic.
The Arab scientists, apart from analysing and commenting on what they inherited, made many original contributions of their own. The Islamic world produced great mathematician-astronomers such as al-Khwarismi (780-850 A.D.), al-Battani (850-929 A.D.), Tabit ibn Qurra (836-901 A.D.), al-Sufi ( 10th cent.), al-Biruni (973-1848 A.D.), Omar Khayyam (c.1048-1124 A.D.) and Nasir al-din at-Tusi (1201-1274 A.D.). The last one was in charge of the observatory at Maragha in Iran. In 1420 A.D., Ulugh Begh, grandson of Timur, built an observatory at Samarkand. Using very big but high-precision instruments he prepared a star catalogue which was much better than that of Ptolemy.<!--QuoteEnd--><!--QuoteEEnd-->
--><img src='style_emoticons/<#EMO_DIR#>/smile.gif' border='0' style='vertical-align:middle' alt='smile.gif' /><!--endemo--> 
