VIEW: East Asia — more discord than accord —Mohan Malik

In the absence of a thaw in Sino-Japanese and Sino-Indian relations or great power cooperation, the EAC is unlikely to take off because multilateralism is a multi-player game. If anything, the first EAS may well have had the opposite effect, intensifying old rivalries. If such rivalry continues, there is every risk that community building would be fatally compromised

Optimists see the East Asian Summit as the first step toward establishing an East Asian Community (EAC) along the lines of the European Community. However, competing geopolitical interests and historic suspicion make the goal unrealistic for the foreseeable future. Instead of creating a common bond, the first summit may have intensified old strategic rivalries and forced smaller Asian nations to choose sides.

The long-awaited summit (EAS) held in mid-December brought together China and India with Japan, South Korea, Australia and New Zealand, and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). With several rising and contending powers, the Asia of the 21st century resembles Europe of the early 20th century, and for now, any Asian free-trade zone to rival Europe seems farfetched.

Despite the ongoing Sino-Japanese feud, Sino-Indian rivalry, discord over membership, and wariness about China’s emerging power, leaders did agree to hold the EAS annually with the ASEAN. But challenges remain: On the eve of the summit, China proposed dividing EAS members into core and secondary categories, and Chinese and Korean leaders refused to hold bilateral or trilateral talks with Japanese counterparts. China’s stance provides insights into Beijing’s insecurities regarding the momentum for a broader East Asian Community shifting power alignments within Asia.

Former Malaysian prime minister Mahathir Mohamad first proposed the summit as the East Asian Economic Caucus in 1991. But the original proposal, with its narrow membership definitions, floundered mainly due to opposition from the US, which was being excluded from what was called a caucus without Caucasians.

Almost a decade later, Mahathir’s successor, Abdullah Badawi, resurrected the idea of an East Asian Community at the 2004 ASEAN Plus Three (China, Japan and South Korea) meeting, and immediately won backing from China’s Premier Wen Jiabao. Perceiving declining US power due to the preoccupation with the War on Terrorism, an assertive China saw an opportunity to steer East Asian multilateralism along the lines of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO), to serve Beijing’s strategic goals and further weaken US influence in East Asia. However, Beijing’s enthusiasm alerted those countries that remain wary of becoming divided into Chinese and American blocs in East Asia or establishing an East Asia Co-prosperity Sphere under China’s leadership. This alarm prompted a campaign to include India, Australia and New Zealand and to ensure that ASEAN remained central to any future East Asian Community.

Membership remained a contentious issue well into 2005. With the exception of Kuala Lumpur, Southeast Asian countries supported India’s participation in the EAS, seeing it as a useful counterweight to China’s growing power and backed Australia’s participation provided that Canberra acceded to the ASEAN Treaty of Amity and Cooperation, which it did.

Failing to exclude India, Australia and New Zealand from the EAS, the Chinese Foreign Ministry proposed on the eve of the summit that the existing ASEAN Plus Three (APT), and not the new 16-member East Asia Summit, control the formation of any Asian community-building exercise. In other words, China insisted that EAC formation remain the responsibility of the core group, or APT. A proposal to divide EAS into two blocs — the core states with China as the dominant APT player, and the peripheral states with India, Australia and New Zealand, “outsiders” according to a recent People’s Daily editorial — led to a major rift.

A People’s Daily commentary listed reasons for the Chinese proposal. The commentary criticised Japan for dragging countries outside the region into the Community to serve as a counterbalance to China and rejected any plans to “dish out the ‘human rights’ issue... to build up US-Japan centred Western dominance... in an attempt to... weaken Chinese influence in East Asia.” China regards Japan and India with substantial antipathy, and not just because the two Asian giants are China’s principal peer competitors. China-Japan relations, always prickly, have lately worsened due to Beijing’s opposition to a permanent UN Security Council seat for Japan and rival claims to petroleum deposits and islands in the East China Sea, not to mention Prime Minister Koizumi’s visits to the Yasukuni shrine commemorating Japan’s war dead.

Beijing remains leery of India’s power pretensions and attempts to extend influence in China’s backyard, regarding New Delhi’s “Look East” policy as part of a wider “congage China” strategy unveiled by the Washington-Tokyo-New Delhi axis. Beijing seeks to confine India to the periphery of a future East Asia Community. The People’s Daily commentator reacted sharply to India’s proposal for an Asian Economic Community: “India’s proposal is not warmly responded as each country has its own considerations.” Apparently, China’s considerations are primarily geo-strategic in nature. Beijing fears that India’s participation would shift the balance of power and make the EAC less susceptible to domination by China. China’s proposal for a two-tiered EAS structure found some support from South Korea, Burma, Thailand, and more importantly, host country Malaysia, albeit for varying reasons.

In the end, China won a partial victory with Malaysian Prime Minister Abdullah Badawi’s announcement that APT, which originally proposed the idea, would be “a vehicle for realising the dreams of forming the East Asian Community.” However, the support came with a caveat: ASEAN spurned Beijing’s offer to host the second summit, and decided that the EAS will be held annually with the ASEAN Summit in Southeast Asian countries only. Thus, ASEAN will be the hub of the EAS and the key driver within the APT.

The reaction was mixed: An Indian diplomat expressed disappointment over the decision to entrench the ASEAN Plus Three framework: “To state that ASEAN is in the driver’s seat, the passengers have a right to know where they are going.” With Australia relegated to the outer circle, Prime Minster John Howard downplayed the summit’s significance relative to the APEC. And Japan expressed its preference that newcomers India, Australia and New Zealand be more than mere passengers on the road to an East Asian Community. Realising that its original goal of establishing an East Asian version of SCO to counter Washington was a non-starter, China quickly lost enthusiasm for the new grouping. As a distant hegemon, the US remains the balancer of choice for countries on China’s periphery. Of the 16 EAS members, Japan, Thailand, the Philippines, Australia and South Korea are military allies of the US, while New Zealand, Singapore, Indonesia, Vietnam, and India are hedgers more concerned about China than the US. So on the last day of the summit, the Chinese premier and diplomats suggested that anyone with interests in the Pacific — Russia, perhaps, or even the United States — could eventually take part, a move that would make EAC indistinguishable from the ASEAN Regional Forum or the APEC.

In the absence of a thaw in Sino-Japanese and Sino-Indian relations or great power cooperation, the EAC is unlikely to take off because multilateralism is a multi-player game. If anything, the first EAS may well have had the opposite effect, intensifying old rivalries. If such rivalry continues, there is every risk that community building exercise would be fatally compromised. At best, the EAS will be just another “talk shop” like the APEC or the ARF where leaders meet, declarations are made, but little community building is achieved.

Mohan Malik is professor at the Asia-Pacific Center for Security Studies in Honolulu. The views expressed here are his own and do not reflect the policy or position of the centre or the US Department of Defense. This article appeared in YaleGlobal Online (www.yaleglobal.yale.edu), a publication of the Yale Center for the Study of Globalization, and is reprinted by permission. Copyright © 2003 Yale Center for the Study of Globalization

Even big editors have small vanities. Mr. Natwar Singh, the foreign minister of India, telephoned the ‘big’ editor of the ‘secular’ newspaper, although it was to clarify his position vis-à-vis the Volcker report. The call merited front paging with a banner headline. In India that is Bharat the word ‘secular’ defies dictionaries - but writing about it is digressing from the main theme. The BE did not have a crystal ball and could not know the twists in the tale which seem to continue to unwind.

Returning to our main story, there are two components in it. The first is Natwar Singh’s denial. What else do we expect him to do? He would and did. He still does although the ‘old faithful party’ led him to the gallows in the larger cause. ‘Caesar is an honourable man’ and his honour should be protected even if one foreign minister is made an errand boy and another a fall guy.

Sometime in April 1987, the Swedish national broadcaster fired its Bofors. The salvo came in handy for one of India’s greatest Machiavellians. For him all was fair in politics and power (power comes after politics in the dictionary - to use a hackneyed pun) including fragmenting the ‘body politic’ in his pursuit of power. He used it to do a Brutus on Caesar. Caesar was dethroned but in spite of thundering protestations, could not regain his honour in his lifetime or after. The needle of suspicion still hovers in the direction of his grave. Caesar is (or was) guilty or not depending on your angle of vision - the perspective parallax (does it sound like an oxymoron?).

Shortly afterwards, Geoffrey Archer, the British novelist published a collection of short stories entitled ‘A Twist in the Tale’. One of the stories in the collection is a spoof on India’s Bofors saga. The story runs like this: The finance minister of a third-world country approaches a Swiss bank ostensibly to investigate the account one of his country’s politicians had with the bank. The senior official of the bank whom the finance minister approaches refuses to confirm or give any details of the account. The finance minister’s pleas in the name of ethics, morality, humanity and what have you and threats to close down all his country’s accounts with the bank and even the threat to kill him were of no avail. The finance minister makes to give up and walk out but suddenly heists (pun intended) his brief case on to the table and says ‘how about opening an account?’

In another part of the story two third-world finance ministers meet in an international conference held in one of their capitals. They become friends and the finance minister of the host country invites the other to his mansion for dinner. The guest marvels at the opulence of his host’s mansion and wonders how he could build such an opulent mansion in so poor a country. The host takes him to the top of the building and shows him a nearby river and a dam on it. He asks him ‘do you see the dam?’ The guest replies he does. “Well! Ten percent of it’, he says.

The next conference was held in the guest’s national capital and naturally the earlier guest now plays host and invites his friend to dinner. It was the turn of the other to marvel at the opulence of his friend’s palace. So the host takes him to the top of the building and points at the panoramic expanse of the nearby river. ‘See the dam there?’ he asks. ‘But I do not see anything there!’ replies his guest. ‘Precisely!’ says the host, ‘Ten per cent of it!’

By the by, Geoffrey Archer believed there was no corruption in the first-world, till ...

Much water has flown the Rhine and Ganges since 1987. India’s foreign minister was used as an errand boy to deliver letters to the Swiss requesting them to stall the Bofors’ investigation, as Caesar’s honour could not be sullied; the dynasty has done so much for the country. J. Nehru billed the nation for his stay in ‘Yarawada gaol’ (as he loved to spell it) and collected an inexhaustible supply of post-dated cheques, which the dynasty is cashing.

A former Japanese prime minister was convicted for corruption. It happened in the Philippines, in Italy, in Israel and Britain. Two British Prime Ministers had to abdicate because of their cabinet colleagues’ sexual misdemeanours - not financial malfeasance. In India such misdemeanours are not reported. After all in India that is Bharat the high and mighty have the privilege of different social codes of conduct. J. Nehru’s escapades with Edwina Mountbaten surfaced long after both of them met their maker.

In the US a President was convicted for spooking his opponent’s headquarters. In India, Indira (no, it does not mean Indira is India) famous for her keeping dossiers on her opponents did not have to do it. In India that is Bharat, law enforcement agencies are their political masters’ fiefdoms. And fund collectors (e.g. Rustum Shorab Nagarwala and Lalit Narain Misra) disappear if their presence is inconvenient for their masters.

Now the second part of the press parallax. The country’s socio-political philosophy is mind-boggling. The country’s founding fathers wanted a casteless society. India today has myriad castes and they keep mutating. Today the political class is the Kshatriyas. All paths are cleared for their movement. The bureaucracy is the Brahmins. They preside over all social activity. The business class is the Vysyas. Everything spins around their money that pervades the ether. The rest - us all comprises the Sudras. The original Brahmins are untouchables today. What goes up has to come down in a topsy-turvy world.

The founding fathers wanted a secular society - meaning that the state has no religion. Indira inserted the word, which the founding fathers forgot to write into the constitution. When she declared a nineteen-month holiday for political parties and received all opponents as government guests - with the noble intention of running trains on time and her second son practiced castrating extra productivity - Indian parliament had to do something. India, today therefore competes with Saudi Arabia.

The press in India today mirrors the socio-political milieu including its hypocrisy with a few honourable exceptions but like internet passwords they too are case sensitive. A press baron is reported to have said ‘I can hire editors a dime a dozen, I want marketing managers who can sell the paper’. A wise editor agreed that there is nothing called objectivity. Objectivity like beauty lies in the eyes of the beholder! Or objectivity like consistency is a virtue of the asses!

The Bofors saga was unearthed by Arun Shourie but taken forward by the ‘big editor with the small vanity’ and his Swiss correspondent. They led us through the mazes of accounts routing and rerouting kickbacks. Indian governments’ lethargy and inactivity ended up in blank walls. No Caesar could be indicted for a ‘Caesar could do no wrong’. That is the divine privilege Indian society confers on its political class.

Time has turned full circle. Now a ‘secular’ government supported by workers’ angels (sounds like Marx and Engels, does it not?) is ruling. Natwar Singh has secular credentials. He wants to reverse the clock and take the country back to the days of the non-aligned movement and an independent foreign policy. An independent foreign policy in the lexicon of the workers’ angels is kowtowing to the dictatorships of the banana republics and the Orwellian paradises - a.k.a. the non-aligned movement. He supports Iraq and Iran not because they are great democracies but because they are Muslim nations. That gets votes for his party although Indian Muslims are appalled by the suggestion that for them a foreign nation - whatever its religion - is more important than their own national interest. All angels must come to the aid of the party - and - Natwar Singh called to clarify that he did not mulct. So ‘I’ believe he did not. Q.E.D. But then, in hindsight………

In the end Natwar had to be excavated from the chair, with him kicking and screaming. There is a twist in the tale, which good old Geoffrey might some day add to his collection. Mitrokhin finally confirmed what many of us suspected all along, that some of those liberal hearts were paid to bleed like the crowds that are arranged to cheer our netas’ orations. Long live KGB! Matherani confirmed that a ‘liberal’ foreign policy could also be milked. Long live AMAM!

<b>UPA govt plans job quota in private sector</b>
Subodh Ghildiyal
[ Sunday, December 18, 2005 11:43:26 pmTIMES NEWS NETWORK ]

NEW DELHI: In a significant departure from its oft-repeated stance that implemention of quotas in private sector should be "voluntary," the UPA government is considering enacting a law to extend job reservations to the non-government sector.

Sources say government, which had so far maintained that it would leave it to the private sector to consider introducing job reservations, is now bringing both an amendment to the Constitution, as well as enacting a new law for the purpose.

Law ministry has already brushed aside the view of attorney-general Milon Banerjee that there’s no room in the Constitution for getting the private sector to implement quotas.

Unlike the law officer who felt that government would’ve to amend the Constitution to satisfy the clamour for pushing the quota frontiers, the ministry has held that the purpose can also be achieved by enacting an ordinary law and placing it under the 9th Schedule of the Constitution for immunity from legal challenge.

It has cited the example of Tamil Nadu, which put the Tamil Nadu BC/SC/ST Reservation Act, 1993, under the 9th Schedule to ward off litigation on the ground that it exceeded the 50% ceiling laid down by SC on the quantum of reservations.

Before Banerji, legal experts Fali Nariman and Justice (retd) K Ramaswamy had also ruled that the Constitution in its current shape did not allow for a Central law to bring in private sector quota.

Government, however, doesn’t agree. This marks a shift from its stand so far, which, in keeping with the "hands-off"ethos of the liberalisation era and recognising the role of merit in boosting productivity, seemed inclined to leave the issue to the sense of "social justice"of the captains of industry.

http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/artic...336539.cms

The current negotiations in Hong Kong has once again shown to the world that the developed nations are always ready to adopt double standards . While, they want the poorer nations to open up their market yet they are not ready to remove the various advantages that they are giving for the protection of their own products , notably agricultural products and cotton.

I could not help wonder if the cooling off of the hindu emotions had something to do with Mahatma Gandhi's assasination. From what I read (I was not born then), the average hindu was more pro-hindutva and that event push the secular agenda on hindus. It was as though hindus were ashamed to be associated with a ideology that killed the father of the nation. That made it easy for commies and congress party to push the secular agenda. Commies, who during the freedom struggle, considered Gandhi and hinduism as the greatest obstacles to "the revolution", used the death of Gandhi to suppress hinduism. The congress party, which was to be dissolved as per Gandhi's wishes, under the socialist Nehru became pro-minority after Sardar's death. Many of the constitutional amendments that were made could possibly be traced to suppressing the hindu unity. Government control of temples was one such measure.

My idea of starting this discussion is following:

1) What if Gandhi had not been killed

2) How his death impacted hindu psyche

3) How to correct this change and make hindus pro-hindutva

There will be a lot of overlap with Missionary, British etc problems in NE India, but this thread is to focus on NE India alone.

<b>The tale density of India is increasing very rapidly. On an average India is adding about 2 million phones every month. Still we are way behind many countries including China, Egypt and perhaps Turkey. However, the most important aspect of this connectivity has been that it is generating employment not only to those who are directly involved in the telecom industry. It has even increased the trading and turnover for the roadside vegetable vendor. The vendor is now equipped with the mobile phone is taking orders from various apartments and having the delivery done by appointing additional people. This is just one example; one can find a large number of such activities in which the mobile phone is playing a major role.</b>

The History of Christmas
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I. HOLIDAYS AND SUN-WORSHIP

Among all peoples of the world, the most common times for celebration are the Winter Solstice and the Vernal Equinox. Considering that the austerity and bleakness of Winter (in contrast to the relative abundance and warmth of Summer) would be so impactful upon the lives of primitive peoples living in temperate climates these festival times -- and even Sun-worship -- should come as no surprise. Stonehenge and hundreds of other megalithic structures throughout the world were constructed to receive a shaft of sunlight in their central chamber at solstice dawn.

December feasts were common in Europe because it was necessary to slaughter cattle that could not be fed during the winter and because the meat could be preserved by the cold weather. The word Yule may come from the Anglo-Saxon word geol (feast), applied to December (geola, feast month). Or it may come from a Norse-Saxon word meaning wheel, referring to the seasonal cycles of the sun. Or it could have come from the Scandinavian Jule (Jul), who was the god of sex and fertility. ("Tide" as in "yuletide" may have come from an Old English word meaning time, occasion or season.)

Midwinter sun festivals were celebrated in ancient Britain & Scandinavia. In Germanic & Scandinavian countries a huge log was carried into the house to serve as the foundation for holiday fires. The Yule log at Jultid (Yuletide) would burn for twelve days, and a different sacrifice would be made on each of the twelve days. Lighted candles and winter fires were used by sun-worshippers to encourage the rebirth of the Sun. Similarly tying fruit to the branches of trees was intended to encourage the coming of Spring.

In the Northern Hemisphere, the Winter Solstice occurs around December 21st, when the Sun is at its greatest distance below the celestial equator. The Vernal Equinox occurs around March 21st when the sun crosses the celestial equator and days have the same duration as nights ("equinox" comes from a Latin word meaning "time of equal days and nights"). The Vernal Equinox marks the beginning of Spring. The constellation (Zodiac sign) visible at dawn on the day of the Vernal Equinox has been regarded as of special significance (currently changing from Pisces to Aquarius due to the 26,000 year precession of the Earth -- the advent of "the Age of Aquarius").

The chief holiday for the ancient Hebrews was celebrated at the first full moon after the Vernal Equinox. Although this holiday was originally a celebration of Spring, it was later celebrated in remembrance of the Exodus from Egypt and was called Passover. The holiday entered Christian celebration by the fact that Christ was reputedly arrested and crucified at Passover. Because Christians insisted that Easter should be celebrated on a Sunday, the Council of Nicea decreed that Easter be the first Sunday after the fourteenth day of the moon (which is approximately the full moon) following the date of the Vernal Equinox (which is assumed to be March 21st). In the first centuries of Christianity Easter was by far the most significant Christian holiday (holy day) and Christmas was not a holiday at all.

The word for "Easter" in most of the Romance Languages is a variant of the Hebrew "Passover", but the English word is unrelated to these forms. Possibly, the English word "Easter" is derived from the name of an Anglo-Saxon goddess of Spring, "Eostre". Or it may have come from "Ishtar/Astarte" the Babylonian/Chaldean Venus who was the consort of the sun-god. Or it may have come from the same root as "east", associating the source of the rising sun with the resurrection ("rising") of Christ. Sunrise service, painted eggs and rabbits have all symbolized rebirth and fertility in Spring celebrations from ancient times. Celebration of motherhood (mother's day) is also most often in the Spring, another possible association with fertility.



II. DIVINITY AND VIRGIN BIRTH
Claims of divinity were commonly associated with virgin birth in the ancient world. The Hindu god Krishna, Gautama Buddha and Zoroaster were reputedly the product of virgin births. Alexander the Great, Constantine and Nero claimed to have virgin births. Admirers of Plato, Socrates, Aristotle and Pythagoras claimed virgin births for these sages. In the ancient world virgin birth was a sign of distinction.

In ancient Egypt, Osiris and his wife Isis were reputed to have been divine secular rulers of Egypt until Osiris was murdered by his jealous brother Seth. Seth cut the body of Osiris into 14 pieces and strew them about the land. Isis gathered up the pieces -- with the exception of the genitals, which had been eaten by a fish -- and restored Osiris to life. Osiris then dwelled in the underworld as the king & judge of the dead. Isis nonetheless gave birth to the divine child "Horus the younger" (presumably a virgin birth). In fourth-century Alexandria, "Madonna" could have been a reference to the mother goddess Isis or Saint Mary. The last Egyptian Temple of Isis was converted to a Christian Church in the sixth century AD.

Some claim that the Old Testament prophesy in Isaiah 7:14 that "the Lord himself shall give you a sign: Behold a virgin shall conceive, and bear a son" is a Greek mistranslation -- that the original Hebrew reads "young woman"(alma), not "virgin"(bethulah). If so, the same mistake would have had to have been made in Matthew 1:23 and Luke 1:27. Isaiah 7:14 prophecizes that the savior shall be called "Emmanuel", but this name does not appear in the New Testament. Mark 6:3 and Matthew 13:55-56 refer to the brothers & sisters of Jesus, which some find difficult to reconcile with the idea that Mary remained a virgin. Either they were not the literal siblings of Christ or the commandment to "be fruitful and multiply" implies that procreation is not sinful.

In the first chapter of Matthew and in the third chapter of Luke there are lengthy geneologies of Christ, possibly to show that Jesus fulfilled the prophecy of being descended from David. The geneologies differ, even concerning the ancestors of David. Luke calls Jesus the son of Joseph. According to Matthew, Joseph is the husband of Mary, rather than the father of Jesus.

Mary is described in the Gospels in connection with the Nativity or as the mother of Christ, and is mentioned only in passing in the Gospel of Mark, the oldest of the gospels. The rise of the prominence of Mary after the first centuries of Christianity may have contributed to the acceptance of the observance of Christ's birthday. The mother of Constantine, who searched for religious relics in the Holy Land, promoted the importance of Mary and the Nativity. The Council of Ephesus was called in 431 A.D. to resolve the dissention caused by the Patriarch Nestorius, who said that Mary had given birth to the human part of Jesus rather than the divine part. Nestorius called Mary the "Mother of Christ". The Council declared Mary to be "Mother of God" and Nestorius was exiled. Notably, Ephesus was the location of one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World: the Temple of Artemis -- the site of the cult of goddess-worship honoring the Greek virgin goddess Artemis (Diana to the Romans) who was the protector of both chastity and childbirth. Sainthood originally was only conferred upon martyrs who had died for Christ, but early in the second millennium the Blessed Virgin Mary became the chief saint of the Roman Catholic Church. (Canonization was not formalized in the Catholic Church until the end of the first millennium.)

The Immaculate Conception does not refer to the virgin birth of Christ, but is a Catholic doctrine published in 1854 by Pope Pius IX that the Virgin Mary was born immune from original sin and remained free from sin her entire life. The Immaculate Conception, December 8th, is a Holy Day of Obligation in which Roman Catholics are required to attend mass.



III. THE STAR OF BETHLEHEM AND THE WISE MEN
The birth of Christ is described in only two of the four gospels: Matthew and Luke. The only common features of the two accounts are the location of Bethlehem and the virgin birth. Only Matthew mentions wise men and the Star of Bethlehem. In Luke 2:16 shepherds, not wise men, find Jesus in a manger. Matthew 2:11 describes the wise men as entering a house rather than a stable, and finding a child rather than an infant. Matthew does not mention the number of wise men or their means of transport (by camel, by foot, etc.) to Bethlehem. The legend that there were three wise men may have arisen because of the three gifts. Sometimes the men are described as "kings", a further fabrication.

Although the King James Version of the Bible describes wise men, this may have been a mistranslation of Magi. Not only may have there been more or less than three Magi, but some or all of them could have been women.

In the 4th century AD the mother of Constantine brought bones purportedly belonging to the three wise men to Constantinople, and these bones currently reside in a Cathedral in Cologne, Germany. Early in Medieval times apocryphal legends arose of the Three Wise Men in art & literature which described them in detail. Melchior was an elderly man with a long white beard who brought gold. Balthasar was a young Moor (North African from the Algeria/Morocco area) who brought myrrh. Caspar (or Gaspar) was a man from the Far East bringing frankincense.

Magi were a class of Zoroastrian priests in ancient Persia who practiced astrology, medicine and magic -- and were renowned in the ancient world for their wisdom. A legend of wise men honoring the baby Jesus was the equivalent of academic certification, despite the fact that astrology was forbidden among the Jews. The wise men gave to the Christ child gold, frankincense (a tree resin producing fragrant smoke when burned) and myrrh (a tree resin with antibiotic & painkilling properties) -- the first Christmas presents. The revelation of the Divinity of Christ to the Gentiles (the Wise Men) was an Epiphany (a word now associated with a sudden realization of a fundamental truth).

Stars had signalled the birth of Krishna, Lao-Tze, Moses and Abraham. Several attempts have been made to give explanations for the Star of Bethlehem. In the 14th century Albert Magnus (teacher of Thomas Aquinas) noted that the constellation Virgo rose above the horizon at midnight on December 24th at the reputed time of Christ's birth. In 1606 the German astronomer Johann Kepler suggested that the "star" was the conjunction of Jupiter & Saturn on May 27th, October 6th and December 1st, 7 B.C. But Jupiter & Saturn would have been separated by a relative distance greater than two diameters of the moon -- so they could not have appeared as a single star. Jupiter & Venus actually overlapped on June 17th, 2 B.C., but this would have been after the estimated 4 B.C. death of King Herod. A supernova explosion occurred in the constellation Capricorn in 5 B.C. and Halley's comet was visible in 11-12 B.C. Chinese astronomers of the Han Dynasty recorded a comet visible for seventy days in 5 B.C.

Natural explanations cannot account for a star being directly above a 20-meter radius on the surface of the earth such that it could be followed to such a specific location, unless the star was not high above the earth: "... and, lo, the star, which they saw in the east, went before them, till it came and stood over where the young child was." (Matthew 2:9). A natural explanation for a supernatural event may undermine the claim that there was anything supernatural about the event at all.

Modern scholars now date Christ's birth between 7 BC and 4 BC. If shepherds near Bethlehem were watching their flocks at night during the birth of Jesus, then the birth may not have been in a winter month like December. If John the Baptist (cousin of Jesus) was really born in late March and Christ was six months younger, then Jesus would have been born in September. The census for taxation described in Luke 2:1-5 may be an unreliable guide to the date of Christ's birth. Roman Emperor Augustus Caesar had a census in 28 B.C., 8 B.C. and 14 A.D. -- but these were only for Roman citizens. If the Bible is taken as written by fallible human journalists (who misremember & embellish) rather than the literal Word of God, then such information can only be regarded as possible clues.

Some historians doubt that the story of Christ in the New Testament is really a description of the activities of a single man. There were likely many, perhaps even hundreds, of individuals claiming to be saviors and prophets during that period. Thus, the Gospels could have been a compilation of stories and folklore that arose around the activities of many such persons.



IV. CHRISTMAS IN ANCIENT ROME
Harvest festivals are typically celebrated later in warmer countries. Thanksgiving is celebrated in October in Canada, in November in the United States and was celebrated in December in ancient Rome. Saturn was the Roman god of agriculture, after whom Saturday is named. Saturnalia was the most popular of Roman holidays, with "Mardi-Gras"-like street celebrations occurring between December 17th (birthday of Saturn) and December 24th -- ending with feasting on December 25th. Halls were decked with evergreens. There was an exchange of gifts, principally wax candles and little clay dolls. Authority figures, however, were given tribute in the form of urns, jewelry, coins or gold. Romans parading in the streets wearing masks during Saturnalia began a tradition which continues today in the form of "mummers".

In 64 AD the Roman emperor Nero is believed to have started a fire in Rome, which conveniently cleared ground for the expansion of his palaces. Nero blamed the Christians for the fire, beginning a Roman policy of persecution that lasted more than two centuries. To avoid persecution the Christians decked their homes with holly and the second bishop of Rome (circa 130 AD) declared that the Nativity of Christ should be celebrated during the Saturnalia period. (It was a "movable feast", a single day was not specified.)

The ancient polytheistic religions of Egypt, Persia, Babylonia and eventually Rome increasingly consolidated their pantheons of deities under a single primary god, usually a Sun-god. The Egyptians believed in a transubstantiation of their Sun-god Ra into a disk-shaped wafer that could be eaten in a sacred ritual. The Persian Mithra (Roman Mithras) held special prominence as god of day (light) and the only son of the God of Heaven. But some time before the 5th century B.C. the Persian prophet Zoroaster taught a dualism based on the conflict between the God of Heaven and the God of Evil. Humans could choose between good (light) or evil (darkness) and on judgement day be sent to Heaven or Hell based on their choices.

Mithras was a divine being borne of a human virgin on December 25th (the Winter Solstice by the Roman Julian calendar). As an adult, Mithras healed the sick, made the lame walk, gave sight to the blind and raised the dead. Before returning to heaven at the Spring Equinox Mithras had a last supper with 12 disciples (representing the 12 signs of the Zodiac). Mithraism included Zoroastrian beliefs in the struggle between good & evil, symbolized as light & darkness. This militaristic black-and-white morality (including a final judgement affecting an afterlife of heaven or hell) probably accounted for the popularity of Mithraism among Roman soldiers. Mithraism was like an ancient fraternity: a mystery cult open only to men which had seven degrees of initiation -- including the ritual of baptism and a sacred meal of bread & wine representing the body & blood of Mithras. Late in the second century AD Commodus became the first Roman emperor to be initiated into Mithraism.

In 270 AD a professional army officer named Aurelian rose to be emperor and was able to reunite the Roman Empire through military might. In 274 AD he attempted to unite the religions of the empire under the state cult of Sol invictus ("unconquerable Sun"). Aurelian's new temple enshrined the Sun gods of Babylonia (Baal, Bel or Marduk). Although Mithras was not formally acknowledged, Natalis solis invicti ("birth of the unconquered sun") was, nonetheless, on December 25th. By the time of the reign of the miliary despot Diocletian (284−305 AD) ten percent of the Roman Empire was Christian. The attempts by Diocletian to impose the state religion on everyone led to the last and most terrible of all persecutions. But many people saw the state as a greater enemy than the Christians, who were respected for their willingness to die for their beliefs. Slaves & upper-class women (who were excluded from other religions) were drawn to a god with a human face who espoused justice & love.

Despite the intense persecutions of Christians in the Roman Empire, Christianity continued to win many converts from paganism. Many of the former pagans were unwilling to relinquish their traditional winter solstice celebrations. When Constantine replaced Diocletian as Emporer of the Western Roman Empire in 305 AD he ended all of the persecutions. Constantine was said to have accepted Christianity in 312 AD on the eve of a battle when he had a vision of a cross of light superimposed upon the sun. Persecution of Christians ended in both the Eastern & Western Empires in 313 AD when Constantine & Licinius issued the Edict of Milan. Constantine sought to unify Sun-worship and Christianity into a single monotheistic state religion. (Although Constantine was baptized on his deathbed, this was not an indication of his insincerity -- it was a common practice of early Christians to delay baptism so as to die without sin.)

Although the Bible sanctifies Saturday as the Sabbath, many Christians regarded Sunday (the day of the resurrection of Christ) as the new holy day -- especially because this distanced Christianity from Judaism. In 321 AD Constantine made Sunday rather than Saturday (Saturn's Day) the weekly holiday of the state religion of Sun-worship. The revolt of the Jews & the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 AD, the rejection of the Hebrew calendar and the increasing pre-eminence of the bishop of Rome were all part of the Romanization of Christianity which accompanied the Christianization of Rome.

Constantine regarded himself to be the supreme spiritual leader of both the Sun-cults and of Christianity. He had moved the capital of the Roman Empire from Rome to Constantinople, he called himself "first of the apostles" and he did not recognize the papacy of the bishop of Rome. In 325 AD Constantine called the first Council of Nicea (Nicaea, effectively the first Council of the Roman Catholic Church) to resolve controversy and establish Christian orthodoxy. The Council established the Unity of the Holy Trinity, the date of Christmas and the date of Easter. Constantine built the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem, one of the oldest continually operating churches in the world (currently administered by a coalition of Roman Catholic and Greek Orthodox clerics). Also in 325 he declared December 25th to be an Immovable Feast for the whole Roman Empire. The bishop of Rome may have accepted December 25th as the date of birth of Jesus Christ as early as 320 AD, but careful analysis by Catholic scholarship can only establish that it was some time before 354 AD.

In Greece, January 6th was the birthday celebration of the child-god Dionysus, borne of the virgin goddess Kore. Dionysus was also known as Jesus. The Eastern Christian Churches celebrated January 6th as the date of both the Nativity and the Epiphany (Greek for "manifestation") -- the manifestation of Christ to the Gentiles (the wise men) as well as Christ's baptism by John the Baptist. In the 4th century, the Eastern Orthodox Churches began to accept December 25th as the date of Christ's birth and the Roman Church began to introduce the January 6th feast of Epiphany. The 567 AD Council of Tours proclaimed the duty of Advent feast and established the period between December 25th and January 6th as a 12-day holy festival -- the Twelve Days of Christmas (if the first day is the day after Christmas, the twelfth day of Christmas is Epiphany).


V. FROM SAINT NICHOLAS TO SANTA CLAUS

A wealthy orphan whose parents died in an epidemic, Saint Nicholas became a bishop at age 17. At age 30 he became the bishop of Myra (now the city of Demre on the south coast of Turkey) near the beginning of the fourth century. Soon after his appointment, the government of the Eastern Roman Empire jailed all Christian bishops who did not publicly sacrifice to the gods of Rome. Nicholas remained in prison for nearly ten years until Constantine conquered the East -- ending the persecution of Christians. So many Christians had defected that the sacrament of confession was created, so that the "traitors" could cleanse their souls before re-entering the Christian Church.

Nicholas was a vigorous opponent of Arianism, the belief of the Alexandrian bishop Arius that Christ was created by God and therefore independent of God and inferior to God-- a form of polytheism. Constantine called the Council of Nicea in 325 A.D. primarily to resolve the bitter conflict in the Eastern Church over Arianism. Nicholas reputedly not only attended Nicea, but physically accosted Arius there. The Nicene Creed supported the unity of God, Christ and the Holy Ghost as a single Being, thereby affirming the monotheism of Christianity. Constantine exiled Arius and ordered his books to be burned.

Saint Nicholas became the subject of many legends. A sailor who fell overboard was reputedly saved by Nicholas when the saint walked on water, retrieved the sailor and carried him back to the ship. After an innkeeper had robbed & dismembered some students, Nicholas reputedly re-assembled them and restored them to life. Nicholas took pity on a poverty-stricken family with 3 daughters who faced the threat of being forced into prostitution because they had no wedding dowries. For two daughters he crept-up to their house at night and threw bags of gold through a bedroom window. For the last daughter, he threw a bag of gold down the chimney -- which landed in a stocking she had set by the fireplace for drying. The traditional association of chimneys & stockings with Santa Claus comes from this story. Nicholas was also noted for his generosity with children -- he would reward them with treats if they had studied their catechism & behaved well. Nicholas was therefore patron saint of schoolchildren & sailors.

The bones of Saint Nicholas lay in his tomb in Myra until 1087. Because the Turks had taken Antioch in 1084, and Myra was no longer Christian, three ships of sailors & merchants raided the tomb, confiscated the bones and took them to the Italian seaport of Bari. In 1089 Pope Urban II consecrated a shrine for the relics of Saint Nicholas in a newly constructed crypt. The Basilica di San Nicola was completed in the middle of the 12th century where the crypt was located.

The legend of Nicholas made him so popular that more European churches bore his name than that of any of the apostles. He was made patron saint of Greece and Russia. He was also made patron saint of banking & pawnbroking at a time when the two trades were closely related. The 3-ball symbol of pawnshops represents the three bags of gold he threw as dowries. On February 14, 1969 the Pope removed Nicholas from the calendar of saints -- there are no records of Nicholas ever having been canonized. The Eastern Orthodox Church continues to recognize the sainthood of Nicholas.

The date of Nicholas's death -- reputedly on December 6th, 326 AD -- was widely celebrated as the feast of Saint Nicholas, but was abolished in many European countries as part of Martin Luther's effort to stop the veneration of saints. German Protestants had the Christ child (Christkindl) distributing presents on December 25th. In English-speaking countries He became Kris Kringle. But in the Netherlands celebration of Saint Nicholas Day (December 6th) continued, despite the rise of Protestantism. Saint Nicholas -- with his long white beard and wearing his red & white bishop's robes -- would ride down streets on his white horse distributing gifts to children. Even today, December 6th is the day children in Holland receive their gifts -- although Saint Nicholas travels from Spain rather than the North Pole and may be accompanied by one or more assistants ("black Peters", who are either Moors or people who were blackened by climbing up and down chimneys).

The transformation of Saint Nicholas to Santa Claus happened largely in America -- with inspiration from the Dutch. In the early days of Dutch New York, "Sinterklass" became known among the English-speaking as "Santa Claus" (or "Saint Nick"). In 1809 Washington Irving, a member of the New York Historical Society (which promoted a Dutch Saint Nicholas as its patron saint), created a tale of a chubby, pipe-smoking little Saint Nicholas who road a magic horse through the air visiting all houses in New York. The elfish figure was small enough to climb down chimneys with gifts for the good children and switches for the bad ones.

The 1823 poem The Night Before Christmas (A Visit from Saint Nicholas, reputedly by Clement Moore, but now believed to have been written by Major Henry Livingston, Jr.) replaced the horse with a sleigh drawn by eight flying reindeer. (Livingston may have been inspired by the Finnish legend of Old Man Winter, who drove reindeer down from the mountain, bringing the snow.) Thomas Nast -- head cartoonist for Harper's Weekly magazine (the man who invented both the Democratic donkey and the Republican elephant) -- depicted Santa Claus from 1863 to 1886 as an unaging, jolly, bearded fat man who lived at the North Pole and wore a furry suit & elfish sleeping cap. By 1881 Nast had drawn Santa as a large man with a white beard in a red suit trimmed with white fur. Although other artists continued to use more elfish depictions, red-suited Santas continued the long tradition inspired by the red & white bishop's robes of Saint Nicholas.

The standardization of Santa's image was probably due to Coca-Cola artist Haddon Sundblom who depicted Santa as a portly, jolly grandfatherly figure with a ruddy complexion and white-fir-trimmed red coat & cap in 1931 -- replacing the pipe with a bottle of Coke. Thirty-five years of annual advertising by the Coca-Cola company using Sundblom's Santa solidified the contemporary image of Santa Claus (but without the Coke). (It was a fortunate coincidence that the red & white colors matched those used by Coca-Cola.)

In England, as elsewhere, many churches had been dedicated to Saint Nicholas, but with the elimination of Catholicism "Father Christmas" reverted to associations with a Green-clad elfish figure associated with pagan mid-winter festivals. Although "Father Christmas" rather than "Santa Claus" is still the name of choice in the United Kingdom, his appearance has become indistinguishable from his American counterpart. Similarly, France has a "Pere Noel" and Brazil has a "Papai Noel".

Rudolf the Red-Nosed Reindeer was invented in 1939 by a staff copywriter for Montgomery Ward. The story was patterned after The Ugly Duckling, turning a genetically defective glowing nose into a foggy-night navigation asset. Originally distributed to children as an illustrated story, a decade later it became the theme of a song which was sung by Gene Autry, the "Singing Cowboy".

Katherine Lee Bates (who wrote the song "America the Beautiful") is credited with the invention of Mrs. Santa Claus in a poem written in 1899. Since that time Mrs. Claus has often been depicted as a cheerful portly woman who spends her time at the north pole preparing Christmas foods.

In the fall of 1897 an 8-year-old girl named Virginia O'Hanlon wrote a letter to the New York Sun asking if Santa Claus really exists. Francis Church, one of the Sun's editorial writers wrote a "Yes, Virginia" reply which has become a classic example for adults fostering children's belief in Santa Claus.

According to one study, 85% of 4-year-olds believe in Santa Claus. Belief drops to 65% by age 6 and to 25% by age 8. As children begin to question how Santa can visit every house, how a large man can fit in a chimney, how Santa can be in so many shopping malls at the same time, etc -- many parents resort to increasingly strained explanations to maintain the fiction. The uncritical belief of children can be touchingly cute. The temptation to build a poetic fantasy-world in formative minds -- removed from the harsh realities of life -- can be great. Potential damage can result from erosion of trust when parents seriously try to convince their children that Santa Claus is a fact rather than a fairy tale. But if a parent can experience sentimental enchantment and love attached to the "game" of Santa Claus it would be hard to find much intention to deceive when no effort is made to mislead a child who begins to question.

Some Christians can become uncomfortable with the God-like qualities of Santa Claus. He is all-knowing, has magical powers and distributes reward or punishment (but nearly always reward, irrespective of how good or bad the child has been). For parents to lie to children to encourage them to believe in a false god in a red suit is viewed as a blasphemous substitute for recognition of the true God.

Men interested in playing Santa Claus at Christmas-time are coming under increasing scrutiny. Some municipalities & organizations (such as the Rotary Clubs) have issued regulations or guidelines concerning Santa hygiene and behavior. In some cases Santa is prohibited from being in the company of a child without a third adult (apart from the parent) being present. Santa must not make promises to a child. Santa must keep both hands in plain view at all times. And Santa must not straddle a child on the knee -- or perhaps not touch a child at all. Background checks and sensitivity training for aspiring Santas are increasing. Schools been instituted to train those who wish to be professional Santas.


VI. FORBIDDEN CHRISTMAS

Celebration of birthdays -- even including that of Christ -- was rejected as a pagan tradition by most Christians during the first three hundred years of Christianity, but the matter became increasingly controversial. The third century Christian writer Tertullian supported observance of Christ's birthday, but condemned the inclusion of Saturnalia customs such as exchanging of gifts and decorating homes with evergreens. Chapter 10 of the Book of Jeremiah begins by condemning the heathen practice of cutting a tree from the forest to "deck it with silver and gold".

The Protestant Reformation in 16th century Europe was associated with a profound rejection of the Roman Church and a return to scripture as the ultimate source of spiritual authority. There was no scriptural support to be found for celebration of Christmas, no commandment that Christ's birthday be observed. Martin Luther called Rome a modern "Babylon" -- parallels could be drawn with the mother-goddess worship of the ancient Babylon. The birthday of Mithras and the festivals of Saturnalia for the celebration of Christ would be symptoms of the paganism upon which the Romans had built the Catholic Church.

English Puritanism was probably the most extreme manifestation of the Protestant reaction against the Roman Church. Exodus 20:4 could be taken to indicate that God does not want to be worshiped the way pagans worship their gods -- with idolatry such as Christmas trees and Nativity Scenes (much less revelry, drinking and gluttony). Oliver Cromwell campaigned against the heathen practices of feasting, decorating and singing, which he felt desecrated the spirit of Christ. Christmas was called such names as "the Papist's Massing Day" and "Old Heathen Feasting Day". The very word Christmas was viewed as taking the Lord's name in vain. Cromwell's government abolished English Christmas celebration by an act of Parliament in 1647, and the ban was not lifted until Cromwell lost power in 1660. But the tradition of carolling at Christmastime did not resume again in England until the 1800s.

Massachusetts Pilgrams passed a similar law forbidding Christmas celebration in New England in 1659 (repealed in 1681). Thanksgiving was the most important festivity for the Puritans. Wassailing (a door-to-door visiting of neighbors, drinking at each stop) was condemned as a source of public disorder. Wassail is a hot spiced wine punch with tiny roasted apples or clove-studded oranges floating on top. "Wes hal" is Saxon/Old English for "be hale" or "be of good health". The fact that toast sometimes floated in wassail bowls has been given as an explanation for "toasting to health".

Christmas as celebrated by Catholics and early Protestants a few hundred years ago was not the secular holiday we recognize today. It was a "Christes Maesee" (Old English for Christ's Mass) or Nativity service plus a large family dinner.

Although Christmas was not widely celebrated in New England until 1852, it was popular in the American South beginning with the Anglican settlement of Jamestown, Virginia in 1607. The Virginian colonists were the first to establish eggnog as a holiday beverage. ("Nog" comes from the word grog, meaning any drink made with rum.) Dutch influence in the settlement of New York City (New Amsterdam) helped make New York a mostly pro-Christmas state, although there was still an anti-Christmas New England influence. Christmas was not declared an American legal holiday until 1894 (many years after having become a holiday for federal employees).

In 1583 the Presbyterian church suppressed the observation of Christmas in Scotland because there are no biblical references to Christmas celebrations nor any biblical commandments to celebrate the birthday of Christ. The Church of Scotland continued to discourage the celebration of Christmas, which remained a normal working day in Scotland until 1958. Hogmanay (December 31) was main day of Scottish celebration.

Modern Jehovah's Witnesses and other fundamentalists still regard Christmas to be an un-Christian pagan holiday, which they do not celebrate.

Christmas was discouraged in the officially atheist Soviet Union, but a Festival of Winter was celebrated, and "Father Frost" would bring gifts to children at the New Year. (Many Slavic countries have had a long tradition of Grandfather Frost riding a sleigh drawn by three horses to deliver gifts to children.)

Fidel Castro declared Cuba to be atheist in 1962, but did not prohibit the celebration of Christmas until 1969. Castro restored the holiday in 1997 when Pope John Paul II was permitted to visit the country.


VII. OTHER CHRISTMAS TRADITIONS

The 567 AD Council of Tours proclaimed Advent, a season from November 11 to December 24 characterized by the spirit of anticipating the birth of Christ. ("Adventists" are Christians who prepare for the imminent Second Coming of Christ.) The faithful were forbidden from being absent from regular church attendance during the period and were to fast as strictly as during Lent. Although the Orthodox Church still begins Advent on November 11, near 600 AD Pope Gregory I shortened the season to the four Sundays before Christmas. The Advent wreath is decorated with four candles, one of which is to be lit on each of the four Sundays. Advent is observed festively in Nuremberg, Germany where the season is begun with a gala opening of the Christkindl Markt (Christ child shopping market) on the Friday before the first Sunday of Advent.

Ancient Egyptians used palms in their Winter Solstice festivals -- and the Romans used firs -- in anticipation of the lush greenery of Spring with the return of the Sun. Bringing an evergreen tree into the house during winter solstice festivals was a tradition among the Germans from at least 700 AD. According to legend, Martin Luther added candles to the tree decorations. Like the Christmas tree, the Advent wreath and its candles are of German origin -- although candles were common gifts during Saturnalia and candles have a long tradition in pagan rituals.

Morality plays performed during Medieval times probably also contributed to the use of Christmas trees. One of the most popular of these plays featured Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden. The only prop would be an evergreen tree (the "Paradise Tree") to which was affixed a red apple. Most commonly the Paradise Play was performed on December 24th, because this was the feast day of Adam and Eve on the old Christian calendar. Because "immoral behavior" sometimes occurred during this play, it was forbidden by the Church in the fifteenth century, but many continued the practice of having a Paradise Tree in their home on December 24th.

Victoria became Queen of England in 1837 at age 18. She proposed to the German Prince Albert and married him in 1840. Albert provided the first Christmas tree, well decorated, to his family at Windsor Castle for the Christmas of 1841. Albert distributed Christmas trees to schools and army barracks to foster his childhood love of the seasonal tree in his adopted country. Newspaper illustrations in 1848 showing the royal family with a Christmas tree decorated with glass-blown ornaments, candles and ribbons in Windsor Castle excited the popular imagination in Britain, a sentiment not shared by Americans.

German immigrants to eastern Pennsylvania ("Pennsylvania Dutch") were decorating Christmas trees in their homes at least as early as the 1820s. In 1851 when some Pennsylvania Germans placed a Christmas tree outside their church, others in the community told the minister to remove the pagan symbol. Christmas trees did not gain popularity in the United States until late in the 19th century. The German song "O Tannenbaum" became translated into the American "O Christmas Tree" (and is the melody for the state songs of Maryland, Iowa, Michigan and New Jersey).

The placing of tinsel on Christmas trees began in Germany -- originally as beaten silver strips. According to legend a poor woman's tree was covered with spiderwebs and this saddened the Christ Child so much that He turned the webs into silver. The Germans also decorated their trees with fruits, pastries, candies, colored paper figures, tin angels and other ornaments. In the United States F.W. Woodworth unexpectedly made a fortune in the 1880s selling German-made Christmas tree ornaments which he had reluctantly stocked in his five-and-dime stores.

In 1882 Edward Johnson, a colleague of Thomas Edison, became the first person to light a Christmas tree with electric light -- using a string of 80 small bulbs. Because they are such a fire hazard, candles were traditionally only placed on a tree on Christmas Eve. With electric lights trees could be illuminated safely for longer periods. And lighting trees outdoors was made practical by electricity. Decorating houses & landscapes with strings of multicolored lights at Christmastime became popular early in the 20th century. Candles had traditionally been placed in windows to help Christmastime travelers to find and identify houses -- and to create holiday cheer.

Mistletoe is a parasitic plant that attaches itself to trees, never touches the ground and can bear fruit in the winter. The Druids regarded mistletoe as sacred. The Scandinavians associated it with the goddess of love. Ancient Babylonian legend regarded mistletoe as a divine branch from heaven which was grafted to earthly trees. Mistletoe was a token of peace & reconciliation -- with a kiss symbolizing pardon. Kissing under mistletoe was a Roman custom. The unholy & pagan associations with mistletoe (and the adulterous temptations) caused the church to ban its use and substitute holly wreaths, which could represent Christ's crown of thorns. (Puritans later condemned holly wreaths as a pagan symbol of sun-worship -- the shape symbolizing the sun.)

From the time of the ancient Egyptians, goose was the main course of Winter Solstice feasts. Henry VIII of England is credited with replacing goose with turkey, which is more meaty & flavorful. Turkeys were first introduced to Europe in 1519 by the Spanish, who learned of turkeys from the Aztecs (who domesticated the birds). Fruit from an exotic American plant -- the cranberry -- was also added to Christmas dinners.

Plum pudding was originally a soup made by boiling beef & mutton with dried plums (prunes), wines and spices. The prunes & meats were later removed, raisins added and the pudding was thickened with eggs & breadcrumbs to be more like a steamed or broiled cake. So "plum pudding" is not a pudding and contains no plums.

Christmas ham may originate from Norse traditions of eating wild boar in midwinter feasts. The ancient Romans ate boar during Saturnalia in honor of the the god Adonis who was slain by a boar and whose birthday was December 25th. The oldest existing printed Christmas carol is "The Boar's Head Carol" (printed 1521), which was sung in England at Christmas dinner while a boar's head was carried on a platter. The custom is still observed every Christmas at Queen's College, Oxford -- a possible relic of the Roman occupation of Britain.

Humble pie was made from the "humbles" of deer (heart, liver, brain and other organs) by the servants of nobility who feasted on the more choice cuts of meat. By the 17th century humble pie had become such a traditional Christmas dish that it was outlawed by the Puritan Cromwell government in England.

Candy canes are edible ornaments which originated in Germany in the late 1600s. Originally made as straight white sticks, a German choirmaster bent the sticks so as to represent a shepherd's staff -- and distributed them to children during Nativity services (at least partly to keep them quiet by giving them something to suck on). Not until the year 1900 did candy canes become striped with the red-and-white Christmas colors or become flavored with peppermint or wintergreen. Some people have the idea that the J-shape is a reference to J-esus and that the red & white symbolize the blood & purity of Christ.

With its large red & white leaves (the colored upper leaves are often mistaken for flowers), the poinsettia has become the Christmas "flower". Eighty-five percent of potted plants sold at Christmastime are poinsettias. The flowers were brought to the United States by physician, statesman and botanist Joel Roberts Poinsett upon his return as American Ambassador to Mexico in 1828. Poinsett cultivated the Aztec plants in his South Carolina greenhouse. In Mexico the poinsettia is called "flower of the Holy Night".

Mumming arose from a pagan tradition where men & women swapped clothes, wore masks and visited neighbors for merry-making (a tradition still observed in Newfoundland) -- although the mummers also trace their origins to the Roman Saturnalia festivals where masks were worn. Plays were sometimes performed with masked, costumed mimes (who were "mum"). Henry VIII outlawed the practice of wearing masks because some people were exploiting the opportunity to beg or commit crimes. The revelry of a New Year's Mummers' Parade in Philadelphia continues a tradition that began at least as early as the American Revolution.

Nutcracker Ballet is a traditional Christmas performance written by the Russian composer Tchaikovsky. It represents the Christmas Eve dreams of a girl. Her nutcracker doll leads a squadron of toy soldiers against an army of mice around a Christmas tree. She also dreams of snowflakes and the Kingdom of Sweets.

Christmas Cards were introduced in 1843 (the same year A CHRISTMAS CAROL was first published) by Sir Henry Cole, an English businessman and patron of art. He printed a thousand cards and sold them as a means to simplify the sending of Christmas greetings. Postage for the cards was one penny in the 1840s. Within a few years after the introduction of the halfpenny rate for mailing cards in the 1870s, the British Post Office was flooded with annual card mailings.

The "Twelve Days of Christmas" is a fanciful English folk song without hidden symbolic meanings. It was probably used to teach children how to count. A legend holds that the song was symbolic for English Catholics when their religion was forbidden in England (prior to the Catholic Emancipation Act of 1829).

The word carol derives from the Middle English carole (ring) -- a ringdance with a song. Originally carols were primarily folk songs for celebrations. Christmas became the holiday of carols in the 16th century, but condemnation of carolling by the Puritans ended the tradition in England for over 160 years. Carols can include both religious songs, such as "Silent Night" & "Oh Little Town of Bethlehem" as well as the nonreligious "Jingle Bells" & "White Christmas", although some distinguish between carols and popular songs.

"Silent Night" (the most popular of all Christmas carols) was first written as a poem in Germany in 1816 by a young priest named Joseph Mohr who was assigned to an Austrian pilgrimage church. Two years later he and his friend Franz Gruber composed guitar music for the piece and sang it for Midnight Mass. "Oh Little Town of Bethlehem" was written as a poem by Phillip Brooks, a Philadelphia pastor who ministered to Union soldiers during the Civil War. The poem was set to music three years later in 1868 and was sung by a children's choir in Brooks's church, but was unknown outside his parish for a decade.

The song "Jingle Bells" was composed in 1857 by James Pierpoint, who became a Confederate soldier in the Civil War. Although Pierpoint never rose out of poverty, his nephew James Pierpoint Morgan (J.P.Morgan) became one of the wealthiest businessmen in America. The song "White Christmas" was composed by Irving Berlin, a Jew, early in World War II. Bing Crosby sang the song to troops who were moved by memories of what their homeland was before the war -- and would be after the war. Sentimental association of snow with Christmas has long been a tradition of the season.

Boxing Day (December 26th) is of British origin and is a recognized holiday not only in Britain, but in Australia, Canada and New Zealand. In British tradition, Christmas was a day of exchanging gifts whereas the day following Christmas was a day in which people of less fortunate station (servants, tradespeople and the poor) received gifts from the more fortunate -- often in boxes -- without the expectation of being anything being given in return.

The time between the holy season of Christmas and the holy season of Lent (the 46 days before Easter Sunday, in remembrance of Christ's 40 days in the wilderness) is sometimes called carnival (Latin for "farewell to meat", in reference to the fasting of Lent). Starting on the day after Epiphany, the peak day of partying with abandonment is the day before Ash Wednesday (the first day of Lent), namely Mardi Gras (French for "Fat Tuesday") -- although the days of celebration can include the entire carnival period.

The World War Once Christmas Truce of 1914 has often been romanticized as an example of how Christmas love can triumph over the savagry & killing of war. But it is no exaggeration to say that the occasion of Christmas evoked shared sentiments, empathy and goodwill among the British & German troops who enjoyed the relief of fraternizing from the stress of shooting & dodging shells.

El Niño (Spanish for "the small boy", ie, the Christ child) was originally a term used by peoples of the west coast of South America to describe the warming ocean countercurrent which occurs annually during the Christmas season. But every 3 to 7 years the effect is abnormally strong and is associated with dramatic climactic effects all over the world, including drought in some areas, flooding in other areas and unusually warm or cold winter temperatures. The most severe El Niño on record was in 1982-1983, but the phenomenon has not been studied by scientists for much longer than fifty years.

St. Francis of Assisi, the patron saint of animals and founder of the Franciscan Order, is said to have been the first to depict a Nativity Scene in Creccio, Italy, around 1223 AD -- using lifesize wooden figures of Mary, Joseph, Jesus and the shephards.

The Greek word for Christ is Xristos (Xhrstos -- the second letter "eta" resembling the Roman "H" -- "Jesus H. Christ"). The shortening of Christmas to Xmas by educated persons who knew Greek has been common since the sixteenth century, with the "X" often symbolizing a cross. "Xmas" was an ecclesiastical abbreviation used by churchmen in tables & charts. More recently the use of "X" has been associated with irreverent commercialism, leading to the saying "Put the 'Christ' back into Xmas."



VIII. CHRISTMAS AROUND THE WORLD

Children all over the world can send letters for Santa to: Santa Claus; North Pole H0H 0H0; Canada. The boundaries of Canada extend to the Geographic North Pole, but there is no land at that location -- only sea ice. The letters are delivered to Montreal where they are answered in over 20 languages with replies printed in "Santa's handwriting" on "Santa's personal stationary".

Letters for Santa are also sent to Finland: Santa Claus Park; Arctic Circle; 999 Finland; Europe. Children in Finland believe that Father Christmas lives in Lapland, part of Finland north of the Arctic Circle. There is a theme park called "Santa Claus Village" in Korvatunturi, Lapland which tourist agencies promote as being Santa's home. Young children in Finland receive their gifts on Christmas Eve -- often from a family member dressed as Father Christmas.

Christmas is called Noel in France, which is why "Joyeux Noel" is the season's greeting in French. The word "noel" may come from "les bonnes nouvelles", meaning "the good news" or gospel. (The "First Noel" was the proclamation of the news of Christ's birth.) In France children put their shoes in front of the fireplace so Pere Noel (Father Christmas) can fill them with gifts. Adults exchange gifts on New Year's Day.

In Spain Navidad (Christmas) is a season that lasts nearly a month, beginning December 8th with the feast of the Immaculate Conception (the Virgin Mary is the patron saint of Spain) and ending January 6 with Epiphany. The season emphasizes religous rather than the secular traditions celebrated so much elsewhere. Much time is spent in church. Most homes have mangers. Festive aspects include special dances, bonfires and a Christmas dinner (featuring seafood). On Epiphany Eve children fill their shoes with grass, straw or grain for the camels of the Wise Men and place them on the doorstep. On the morning of Epiphany (Three Kings Day) the children find the gifts left by the Wise Men. The Wise Men play a role similar to Santa Claus -- they visit hospitals, appear in parades and children write them letters requesting special gifts.

Italy also emphasizes Nativity scenes and religious aspects of the season in its Christmas observances. People fast and pray prior to Christmas dinner. Epiphany is similarly the day for gifts, but the gifts are left by an elderly woman (La Befana) who had intended to help the wise men find the young Jesus -- but had been busy cleaning. Dressed in black she flies on the broom she had been using for sweeping and slides down the chimney to fill the good children's stockings with gifts and to leave a lump of coal in the stockings of bad children. A large Christmas tree is ceremoniously presented at the Vatican by the Pope, much the way the National Christmas tree presented by the American President.

In Russia Babouschka is the name of the elderly woman who failed to provide food & shelter to the Wise Men. She wanders searching for the Christ child, leaving gifts for children. Christmas dinner is a meatless meal eaten on January 6th (Christmas by the Julian calendar) following a period of fasting. In Ukraine the meatless Christmas dinner is served in twelve courses to honor the 12 apostles.

In Latin America Nativity scenes rather than Christmas trees are the decorative centerpiece of Navidad -- often containing elaborate ornaments, figurines and electric lights (although Christmas trees are popular in Argentina). In Chile Old Man Christmas climbs through open summer windows with his bag of toys. In Brazil Papa Noel arrives in a helicopter at a large soccer stadium in Rio wearing a silk shirt rather than a fir coat. In Mexico children break cardboard or paper mache pinatas hung by rope to be rained-upon with candies & small toys.

Christmas in Australia & New Zealand is celebrated with beach parties & outdoor barbecues -- along with caroling and other religious observances. Christmas marks the beginning of summer holidays at the end of the school year, so students have an additional reason to celebrate. The Christmas tree in New Zealand is the Pohutukawa, which has brilliant red flowers prior to Christmas.

Christmas is a national secular holiday in India, where the Hindus & Muslims celebrate in the secular traditions. Poinsettias & tropical plants are used for decoration and mango & banana trees receive Christmas ornaments. Tribal Christians in the Northeast & West go to church & sing carols. In the South clay oil lamps are lit on roofs and the tops of walls in the evening.

In most Middle Eastern countries signs of fellow Muslims celebrating Christmas are viewed with scorn, so forms of Christmas celebration are rarely found among the non-Christians. Christians from all over the world come to Israel & Palestine to visit the Church of the Nativity in the West Bank town of Bethlehem and other sacred sites of historical significance to Christians. The St. Nicholas festival is celebrated in Myra, Turkey.

In Zimbabwe Kisimusi (Christmas) church services feature feasts & the singing of gospel songs. Fathers give gifts to wives & children, usually clothes & candy. Wearing new clothes to church on Christmas day is a common tradition among African Christians.

About one-tenth of the population of Vietnam is Roman Catholic. Catholic children enact Nativity scenes at Christmastime.

Christmas is increasingly celebrated in China, where coastal factories are the largest suppliers of Christmas paraphernalia to the American market. In China, the Communist Party does not regard Christmas as a religious threat because it is celebrated entirely as a fun occasion for exchanging gifts and for partying with family & friends -- against a backdrop of Christmas trees, greetings, and melodies. China is adopting Christmas in much the way it has adopted Western music, clothing and videos.

The Japanese traditionally celebrated oseibo, a gift-giving season in December, but the main holiday season is around the New Year. Although gifts were given to friends, coworkers and relatives, expensive gifts were given to bosses, seemingly as tribute. Less than 1% of Japanese are Christian, but many of the secular aspects of Christmas celebration have become increasingly popular, especially in cities. Images of Santa Claus & decorated Christmas trees have become very common, along with Western Christmas holiday music. Christmas gift-giving is less family-oriented and more romantic, like Valentine's Day (possibly related to the fact that younger people are quicker to adapt foreign customs as a fad).

Conveniently, December 25th was the date of the signing of the Constitution of the Republic of China in 1947, so December 25th is an official holiday in Taiwan -- which is celebrated like Christmas.

Hanukkah (Chanukah, the Festival of Lights) is not a major Jewish holiday like Passover (celebrating the Exodus) or Yom Kipper (celebrating God's forgiveness in the second Tablet of Commandments). Honoring a 165 BC battle for religious freedom against a Syrian tyrant, Hanukkah is celebrated for eight days conveniently close to the Christmas season -- involving exchanging of gifts, house decorations and family feasting. The exact dates are determined by the Hebrew calendar, so they vary from year-to-year on the Gregorian calendar. The most distinctive ceremony is the lighting of an additional candle on the menorah (candelabra) each evening of the holiday. Increasing numbers of municipal court cases have been fought over the right of Jewish organizations to place a menorah in public places alongside Christmas trees and other holiday displays.

Eid (Eid Ul Fitr) is a time of feasting, celebration and gift-giving (to children or the needy) that is sometimes taken as an Islamic equivalent of Christmas. The date of the holiday, however, is not constant on the Gregorian calendar because it is celebrated on the first three days following the ninth Islamic month (ie, following Ramadan, when Muslims fast from dawn to dusk to honor the month in which the Koran was revealed). The Islamic calendar year consists of 12 lunar months and is therefore about 11 days shorter than the Gregorian calendar year. The holiday only begins when the crescent of the new moon of the tenth month is sighted -- and this can be a matter of regional difference or controversy among Muslims. (The crescent only became became a symbol of Islam with the founding of the Ottoman Empire and the conquest of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453. The crescent had appeared on the city's flag from before the time of Christ, but the symbol was adopted by the Ottoman's and subsequently by all Muslims.)

In the 1960s an activist California professor of Black Studies created the holiday of Kwanzaa in reaction against Christmas as an institution of commercialism & exploitation not relevant to African-Americans. The word "Kwanzaa" comes from a phrase meaning "first fruits" in Swahili, the most widely spoken African language. In the seven days from December 26th to January 1st the seven communitarian African values are strengthened & celebrated: Unity, Self-determination, Collective Work and Responsibility, Cooperative Economics, Purpose, Creativity and Faith.

Some non-religious people have attempted to combine conformity and rebellion by celebrating Isaac Newton's birthday -- "Newtonmas" (emphasizing apple decorations, particularly for people who have outdoor apple trees). Newton was born on December 25, 1642 according to the old Julian calendar, but by the Gregorian calendar (the one in current use) his birthday was January 4, 1643. Both calendar systems were in use during Newton's lifetime. As a birthday gift, Newton was made Master of the British Mint on December 25, 1699/January 4, 1700. (According to one legend Isaac's Anglican parents listed December 25th on the birth certificates of all their children as a protest against the anti-Christmas Cromwell government.)

Other non-Christians who celebrate the Winter Solstice are Pagans -- including Wiccans (witches), Druids and followers of Norse traditions -- honor Solstice celebrations. (But the most important Pagan ceremony is the new year at Hallowe'en.)


IX. CHRISTMAS SPIRIT

In 18th century England & America non-puritans who celebrated Christmas did so by churchgoing, holly in windows, caroling, some dancing, adult visiting and dinner parties featuring mince pie, fruitcake & other seasonal foods. Children and exchanging of gifts were not featured in Christmas celebration. Charles Dickens and the transformation of the Dutch Saint Nicholas into Santa Claus changed the spirit of Christmas.

Charles Dickens wrote A Christmas Carol in 1843. This popular book had an extremely powerful influence on undermining opposition to Christmas, especially among those influenced by Puritans in England and New England. Dickens used Scrooge to symbolize the idea that those who don't celebrate Christmas are uncharitable, twisted, mean-spirited and socially isolated. Dickens depicted Christmas as a one-day family event held in the home rather than a 12-day public holiday -- thus contributing to changing the way Christmas was celebrated. Central to the Dickens Christmas celebration was a lavish family dinner.

In 1957 Dr.Seuss reinforced the negative image of those who don't want to celebrate Christmas with his picture-book How the Grinch Stole Christmas. The Grinch -- a nasty mountain hermit -- steals Christmas paraphernalia and plans to destroy it. But his heart is touched by the sound of Christmas carols, and he becomes transformed (as happened to Scrooge).

The modern celebration of Christmas tends to emphasize commercial and other non-religious aspects of the holiday. The time to Christmas is measured by "shopping days" rather than "prayer days". For retailers, it is "the season to be jolly" (except when their expectations are too high). An estimated one-sixth of retail sales in the United States are Christmas purchases.

Gallop polls have shown that over 90% of Americans regard Christmas to be their favorite holiday. Many love the fun of giving and receiving presents. Christmas has become, above all, a celebration of family. For most, the feelings of sharing, togetherness and love experienced at Christmas-time is a special joy. But the expectations some family members project upon other members often have the character of "familial moral duty". The season thus frequently occasions reopening old hurts and conflicts. This forces many people to re-examine their lives, especially because Christmas is a period which interrupts routing daily living. Resolutions for the New Year are often the result.

Perhaps no modern institution apart from Christmas elicits such ritualistic behavior from so many people. And the pressures to conform to these rituals can be very great. When others are celebrating with friends & family, those without friends & family (especially due to death of a loved-one) can feel their loss intensified. But Christmas can also be a time of great social support. Popular magazines frequently report high suicide rates at Christmas, but scientific studies have consistently shown that suicide as a cause of death declines immediately prior-to and on Christmas day -- only becoming higher than normal on the days after Christmas [ARCHIVES OF GENERAL PSYCHIATRY 38(12):1377-1381 (1981) and AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PSYCHIATRY 142(6):782 (1985)].

Many Christmas parties are held in the weeks of early December. Hard liquor sales are 30% greater in December than in September. Although toasting with alcoholic beverages is part of the holiday tradition, a large number of consecutive non-working days appeals to some people as a drinking opportunity. (America may owe its independ

Lacunae/Gaps in Indian History

I am starting this thread, with the intention, that forum members will join in to fill the gaps in the Indian history as they come across material.

The material members put, should be reviewed, critiqued, and added to.

It should then be disseminated, and hopefully one day be included in our Indian history textbooks



Ravi Chaudhary

I am importing the relevant posts from the Gandhi thread. The thesis of this discussion has been set forth in detail in a chapter called the 'South Asia File" in a book jointly authored by acharya and me


It was Sarojini Naidu, in a now famous quote was overheard remarking to Mountbatten (and i paraphrase)_that' you would be surprised Lord Louis, at how much it costs the Congress to keep Gandhiji in poverty'. It was well known that Gandhi was a fastidious man in many respects. Simply wearing a loin cloth does not make for simple living.

But that is not the crux of my assertion. My point is that Gandhi (and to a large extent Nehru) were afforded many facilities like writing materials and books and a desk during their incarceration which were not afforded to those like Savarkar who were sentenced to hard labor. What is the point of this assertion ? The point is that such an incarceration was not such a great hardship and was relatively benign compared to those who were sentenced to hard laborand therefore did not indicate a high level of courage on the part of Gandhiji knowing that the punishiment was easily bearable. The issue of whether Gandhiji cared for these luxuries is irrelevant, but the fact that they were there, puts a question mark on whether there was any real courage involved in his courting arrest.

Another point needs to be made. During his entire stay in South Africa, Gandhiji remained a staunch friend of the brits. It was not till jallianwallahbagh that it dawned on him that the presence of the brits in india was the problem

You must recall also that the reason i wrote the post was that i felt it was unnecessary to label Gandhiji a wimp, which i find to be unnecessarily derogatory. My view is that Indians tend to pigeonhole their leaders into saints or sinners. Well Gandhiji was neither and this constant tendency to deify our leaders takes away from the ability to look upon their achievements in an objective manner. BTw i do not deify any leader, while i find it distasteful to attack the personality of any leader, but criticism of his or her actions is quite another matter

QUOTE
So we are to believe that since one of the founding members of INC was a Brit, the INC in 1885 was no differrent once the leadership had passed from his generation (Dadabhai et al) to Tilak to Gandhi and Nehru. Far from revolting in any great numbers, Indians by and large actively helped and sustain the british government


I am not sure where you are going with this line of argument , but one minor point is that IIRC the majority of the founding members were brits. My point was that the Brits set the tone of the debate by starting the INC. They ensured that any nationalist movement that arose would be largely confined to the english speaking elite and that many avenues of action would not even be considered acceptable because the elite were already building a considerable stake in theeconomy and almost believed that without the Brits there would be no recovery possible for India. The point is that the INC was a British plant and it is to the credit of Indians like Tilak that they finally broke away from the ideological umbilical cord that the Brits had surreptitiously wrapped around the INC. You have to admit that starting the INC was a master stroke by the Brits

In reality their expectation were right on the button until Jallianwallahbagh . It was only then that the educated elite in India realized that the brits would resort to any measure to retain their hold in India.

Also , I have to be careful and not be unduly harsh on the average Indian during that period. The average Indian was poverty stricken and barely able to survive after 7 centuries of semislavery. My remarks were directed at the elite. It was well known that the Birts did not believe they would overcome the uprising of 1857 (which was ignited bottoms up by the aam janata) if the Maharaja of Scindia did not come through to their aid. Sure enough Scindia did not disappoint and the rest is history. The point being a large majority of the educated elite supported British rule , Again my reading of this is that after 7 centuries of mayhem and looting and impoverishment and lawlessness in the land the elite found the Brits to be relatively an improvement and were willing to settle for a small sliver of a loaf instead of a full loaf of bread (poorna swaraj).

One final point . I do not wish to give the impression that had i been alive during those time i would have unconditionally advocated violent resistance on every occasion, but at the same time I do not see the need to make ahimsa a central principle in the freedom struggle. The leader that i find myself in ideological proximity is clearly Tilak. Gandhiji has been conveniently deified by the western world after his death, but it is a matter to ponder that during his life he had very little support from the ruling elite of any country(let alone Britain for whom he did yoeman service during the Boer war In Africa), who were generally dismissive of his tactics.

This post has been edited by Kaushal: Nov 25 2005, 03:16 PM

post by shaurya
Kaushal,

You believe that Gandhi/Nehrus incarceration was benign and that the INC started as a british plan. What can I say, lucky for them and us (on that count alone) that they had the British and not the mongols as their rulers. As far as the INC being a British plan, I did say they managed this pretty poorly that they lost control of it in a single generation ! The British are not known for such shoddy management of affairs. My response to you is sarcastic becuause I do not find merit in your assertions. I will be more than glad to discuss anything more than what you feel about it. I have never read anywhere that the INC started as a british plan!

Shaurya said
QUOTE
As far as the INC being a British plan, I did say they managed this pretty poorly that they lost control of it in a single generation ! The British are not known for such shoddy management of affairs. My response to you is sarcastic becuause I do not find merit in your assertions. I will be more than glad to discuss anything more than what you feel about it. I have never read anywhere that the INC started as a british plan!

post by Kaushal


Obviously the Brits are not going to advertise that the INC at least in the first few decades after it was founded, was their vehicle for controlling the future direction of the freedom movement and while Congress was in power for most of the time of post Independent India,they would be hardly likely to admit that the venerable INC was a plant by the Brits. That would certainly take the shine of the official version of Indian history that the Congress was primarily instrumental in securing India's freedom.

The genesis and evolution of British policy towards the Indian subcontinent(later to be referred to as South Asia) and how the Brits crystalllized their stance towards India in the nineteenth century makes for interesting reading

In a recent book by Chandrasekhar Das Gupta (War and diplomacy in Kashmir) he makes it clear that Mountbatten called the shots in the Kashmir issue even after August 15, 1947 and prevented India from overrunning Kashmir and dealing a deathblow to the infant monstrosity called Pakistan. That this was the case is of course no surprise to most discerning Indians who have long since abandoned the starry eyed nonsense about Mountbatten being a friend of India. see for instance the relevant archived thread in BR.

http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/phpBB2/vie....php?t=238

The question is why did Britain ( and later the US) go to such extraordinary lengths to prop up a frankenstein like Pakistan. It is commonly assumed in India that it was Nehru's tilt towards the FSU (former soviet union) that resulted in the tilt of the west towards the terrorist state of Pakistan (TSP), That may explain the US stance after Hungary and 1956 , but it does not explain why the brits took such an anti Indian stance right from 1947. After all the first GG of India , at the express request of the Indians, was Mountbatten (who outwardly claimed to despise Jinnah) and the chiefs of staff were all British till 1950, and Nehru relied extensively on Sir PMS Blackett(who was almost a scientific adviser to the GOI) till his death, on the formation of Indian science policy and the development of Nuclear weapons. These are not the actions of a man who was anti west much less distrusted them. The chronology of events certainly does not bear out such a hypothesis as the tilt by the Anglo/US alliance predates the so called tilt by Nehru towards the FSU. No, there was more to it than that.


The real answer, as far as I can discern, goes back to the aftermath of the 1857 uprising. I have attempted to answer this question after doing some extensive research (jointly with acharya). The analysis is summarized in a presentation we recently made at a joint meeting of BR and IF, titled the South Asia File . see for instance my post dated Nov 24 2005, 08:06 AM in the India US thread

http://www.india-forum.com/forums/index....1090&st=30

The details including an extensive list of additional materials to read are available in a forthcoming book by me which can be read online here
The reason i went into the lengthy explanation was your self confessed assertion that you were being sarcastic. Well it is time to educate oneself on the subterannean strands in Indian history and if i were you, i would abandon sarcasm as a weapon of choice. It impresses neither friend nor foe

post by shaurya

And educate myself I did. Read your reports and your blog and the introductory chapter of your book. First, Let me respectfully congratulate you on your ability to compile all this material. Having said that let me provide some critique to your writings. I found your writings to be uninsightful and felt you are seeing dangers, where none exist. Your premise that there is some kind of an anglo saxon plan led by the US to prop up TSP and make India fail falls flat against KNOWN facts established by all sides the US, the TSP and India. The root cause for the importance of Pakistan post 1947 has been its location and subsequent events such as access to China, cold war front in Afghanistan, border with Iran post 1979 and access to Afghnistan post 9/11 (all to primarily do with location). India firmly siding with the USSR and the US with TSP started post 1965. Your theory of Mountbatten's role on Kashmir policy matters the least. You should know better that the post of GG post Independence was a ceremonial post and the powers of the executive were with the provisional government led by Nehru. As the leader of a sovereign nation, I hold him to be solely responsble for the decision to refer the case to the UN, regardless of the advice of a Mountbatten.

I simply do not agree with the conclusions you have drawn. You fundamentally believe that there has been some kind of a deliberate plan by the British and then by the US post 1947 to work against the Indic civilization. In making these assertions, you fail to give proofs, which can by scientifically evaluated.

Understand that britain or the INC will not claim INC to be be a british plan. I see the creation of INC as nothing but an attempt by some british symathizers of India to give a organizational voice to Indian polity. Its shape and character changed with time, people and events. There is no more to it. You may continue to see ghosts, where none exist. I have no illussions of inherent goodness of the western civilization and/or christendom. I am under no illusions that they were shouldering the white man's burden in the colonization of Asia and Africa.

I do not wish to open your entire book up for scrutiny, but would encourage forum members to read it and post their own views.

post by Kaushal

Nov 27 2005, 09:18 PM | Post #183|


Bharatya


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Shaurya,The emphatic manner in which you reject the thesis of the book and all that it contains without a shadow of a doubt within the space of a few hours,tells me you have obviously not read the book(or at least the first 4 chapters - about 200 pages) which is well documented with extensive footnotes,or if you have read it you must have done so in a cursory manner, because otherwise you would not make the statement that we did not provide proofs. It is clear from Chandrasekhar Das Gupta's (IFS cadre) book that Mountbatten moved heaven and earth to prevent Kashmir from falling into India's hands. That Britain took such an emphatic anti Indian stand all of a sudden in 1947 in what was regarded then as the most peaceful transfer of power in all of history is not easily explainable, especially with a labor government at the helm,ostensiby sympathetic to demands of Indian independence All this was from documentation released by Britain's India office only in the last five years , so it is not reflected in the conventional wisdom which prevailed during the first fifty years of independence.

One does not have to believe that the British ruling class (or the Americans for that matter) were an especially devious people to believe them capable of doing what i have painstakingly l laid out. After all it was Britains Lord Acton who emphasized that 'Nations do not have permanent friends or permanent enemies only permanent interests' . An aphorism we as Indians should recall more than any other but conveniently forget in the emotion of the moment , resulting in inanities like 'hindi Chini Bhai Bhai'.

The governing dispensation in Britain believed strongly in maintiainiing the Imperial majesty of Britain (" I will not preside over the dissolution of the British empire' thundered Winston Churchill while reacting to the plans for indian independence)and failing that it became an article of faith that it was (perceived to be) in the permanent interest of Britain that the subcontinent should not be left intact should they have to leave. IOW, they wanted to establish an alternate center of sunni power to encircle and contain a resurgent India should it ever achieve independence. The notion that Indian and Muslim league leaders were instrumental in creating partition misses the whole crux of the issue that the foundations of such a policy were laid in the aftermath of the 1857 uprising when the Brits were stunned at the extent of the unity between Hindus and Muslims and thereby worked systematically to destroy the cohesiveness of Indian society using myriad means at their disposal during the ensuing decades.

Oh well we are left with at least one agreement -to agree to disagree. so be it

Kaushal,
A lot what you've written in the above post is also documented in Durga Das' book "India - Curzon to Nehru". Durga Das served as journalist/reporter for over 50 years and editor of Hindustan times. He had access direct access to people like Gandhi, Nehru, Patel, Azad, Prasad, and most British policymakers in India. Someday, I'll take time to post from his book.


Kaushal Yesterday, 06:44 PM | Post #185|


Bharatya


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Viren, it has been many years since i read DurgaDas' book.It appears i should revisit it





Shaurya Yesterday, 07:41 PM Post #187|





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Kaushal,

First a correction, I said, I read the introductory chapter of your book and not the whole book. I have re-read your introductory chapter only. While i have no argument with much of what you have written (the information was very basic and without much insight) there is no proof or persuasive reasoning leading up to the thesis of your book. The key points being:

1. It was the intent of Britain to break India before leaving
2. The UK was particularly against India post independence (prove their actions did not follow the cold war centric actions of the US and were hostile through the 50's)
3. The US as the inheritor of the anglo-saxon global leader, continued to work against India and is still doing so. (delinked from geo-political events)
4. The US/UK strategy has been and is to bolster a Sunni Islamic state within the subcontinent and encourage the eventual extinction of the Indic civilization in its ancestral homeland.

Also, please provide some motives, After all, Nations do not have permanent friends or enemies but they do have motives --- What would be the motive behind such actions. Motives such as the need of imperial britain to expand trade and power in the 18th and 19th centuries. The need for Islam to be in a state of war or peace, as dictated by the political ideology in the Quran and other such mundane motives such as the US aligning with India as a hedge against china in a possible future Asian security scenario, etc.

I hope you realize that most watchers of Indo US relations today will not believe points 3 and 4. If you can indeed prove these and i have an open mind on this, it will be a revelation to me and other forum members. Please let me know, if i have not understood your key points, the mistake would be in my understanding and not deliberate.




Viren Today, 06:35 AM | Post #188|


Bharatya


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Kaushal/Shaurya:
Perhaps this dialogue can take place in a separate thread?


ben_ami Today, 06:48 AM | Post #189|





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QUOTE(Viren @ Nov 29 2005, 08:05 PM)
Kaushal/Shaurya:
Perhaps this dialogue can take place in a separate thread?






YES please.... i was hooked the moment i read it.


will someone please give the lowdown on what their intentions ACTUALLY are??


i am new here. and there will be newer guys here in future too.

so to the mods i have a request.

that you start a "must read" thread in the main part of the forum that should have links to some of the best and most pertinent threads (and if possible to individually brilliant posts from the not-so-good threads) as well.

the compilation can be done slowly with new links added as and when necessary.

this will help to serve as a "highlights package" to the contents of this forum.
which will come in very handy... for example look at me... i dunno which ones to read first and which could wait.